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UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-K

FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED DECEMBER 31, 2021

OR

COMMISSION FILE NUMBER: 001-36279

CARA THERAPEUTICS, INC.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

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Registrant’s telephone number, including area code: (203) 406-3700

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

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Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act: None

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.  Yes  ◻    No  ⌧

Indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or Section 15(d) of the Act.   Yes  ◻    No  ⌧

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.   Yes  ⌧  No  ◻

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).   Yes  ⌧    No  ◻

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer”, “accelerated filer”, “smaller reporting company”, and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

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If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ◻

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report. ☒

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Act).   Yes  ☐    No  ⌧

The aggregate market value of the registrant’s Common Stock (the only common equity of the registrant) held by non-affiliates, based on the closing sales price of the stock on the Nasdaq Global Market for the last business day of the registrant’s most recently completed second fiscal quarter, was $695,807,241. For purposes of this calculation, shares of common stock held by directors and officers and their affiliated entities at June 30, 2021 were excluded. Exclusion of shares held by any person should not be construed to indicate that the person possesses the power, direct or indirect, to direct or cause the direction of the management or policies of the registrant, or that the person is controlled by or under common control with the registrant.

The number of shares outstanding of the registrant’s Common Stock, par value $0.001 per share, as of February 24, 2022 was 53,513,518.

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Documents Incorporated By Reference

Portions of the registrant’s Proxy Statement for its 2022 Annual Meeting of Stockholders, to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission no later than 120 days after December 31, 2021, are incorporated by reference in Part III of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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CARA THERAPEUTICS, INC.

2021 ANNUAL REPORT ON FORM 10-K

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PART I

In this Annual Report on Form 10-K, the terms “we,” “us” and “our” refer to Cara Therapeutics, Inc.

Cautionary Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements

This Annual Report on Form 10-K contains forward-looking statements, within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995, that involve substantial risks and uncertainties. The forward-looking statements are contained principally in the sections of this Annual Report on Form 10-K titled “Risk Factors,” “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and “Business,” but are also contained elsewhere in this Annual Report on Form 10-K. In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by the words “aim”, “anticipate,” “believe,” “continue,” “could,” “estimate,” “expect,” “intend,” “may,” “might,” “objective,” “ongoing,” “plan,” “predict,” “project,” “potential,” “seek,” “should,” “will,” or “would,” and or the negative of these terms, or other comparable terminology intended to identify statements about the future. These statements involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual results, levels of activity, performance or achievements to be materially different from the information expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements. Although we believe that we have a reasonable basis for each forward-looking statement contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, we caution you that these statements are based on a combination of facts and factors currently known by us and our expectations of the future, about which we cannot be certain.

The forward-looking statements in this Annual Report on Form 10-K include, among other things, statements about:

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You should refer to Part I Item 1A. “Risk Factors” of this Annual Report on Form 10-K for a discussion of material factors that may cause our actual results to differ materially from those expressed or implied by our forward-looking statements. As a result of these factors, we cannot assure you that the forward-looking statements in this Annual Report on Form 10-K will prove to be accurate. Furthermore, if our forward-looking statements prove to be inaccurate, the inaccuracy may be material. In light of the significant uncertainties in these forward-looking statements, you should not regard these statements as a representation or warranty by us or any other person that we will achieve our objectives and plans in any specified time frame or at all. We undertake no obligation to publicly update any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required by law.

You should read this Annual Report on Form 10-K and the documents that we reference in this Annual Report on Form 10-K and have filed as exhibits to this Annual Report on Form 10-K completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from what we expect. We qualify all of our forward-looking statements by these cautionary statements.

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Risk Factors Summary

Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk because our business is subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, as fully described below. The principal factors and uncertainties that make investing in our common stock risky include, among others:

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Industry and Market Data

We obtained the industry and market data in this Annual Report on Form 10-K from our own research as well as from industry and general publications, surveys and studies conducted by third parties. Industry and general publications, studies and surveys generally state that the information contained therein has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable. These third parties may, in the future, alter the manner in which they conduct surveys and studies regarding the markets in which we operate our business. As a result, you should carefully consider the inherent risks and uncertainties associated with the industry and market data contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, including those discussed in Part I Item 1A. “Risk Factors.”

Item 1. Business.

Overview

We are an early commercial-stage biopharmaceutical company leading a new treatment paradigm to improve the lives of patients suffering from pruritus. Our novel KORSUVA injection is the first and only FDA-approved treatment for moderate-to-severe pruritus associated with chronic kidney disease, or CKD, in adults undergoing hemodialysis. We are developing an Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) formulation and plan to initiate Phase 3 programs in the first quarter of 2022 for the treatment of pruritus in patients with atopic dermatitis, or AD, and non-dialysis-dependent chronic kidney disease, or NDD-CKD. Phase 2 trials of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) are ongoing in primary biliary cholangitis, or PBC, and in NP patients with moderate-to-severe pruritus.

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Our mission is to be the leader in the treatment of chronic pruritus and transform the way pruritus is treated to improve the quality of life for millions of people who suffer from pruritus. Our corporate strategy is focused on changing the standard of care and advancing the scientific understanding of pruritus. With this focus, we aim to be the leader in this treatment area across many diseases, where we believe there is significant, unresolved unmet need and significant value in meeting that need. Pruritus is a medical condition and yet few if any targeted treatment options are available for patients. In our estimation, based on available literature and market research, potentially millions of patients globally, could benefit from a therapy specifically targeting chronic pruritus. Many current therapies used in the pruritus treatment algorithm target another underlying disease condition. However, these therapies do not often sufficiently address pruritus, leaving patients with poor quality of life. Chronic pruritus manifests across primarily three key disease categories or subsets, and is a key effect in numerous (1) systemic diseases, (2) dermatological diseases, and (3) neurological diseases.

Our strategy seeks to leverage and maximize the highly novel mechanism of action of our lead asset, difelikefalin, to potentially treat pruritus across all three of these key disease categories. The first step in executing our strategy was the FDA approval of KORSUVA injection for the treatment of moderate-to-severe pruritus associated with CKD in adults undergoing hemodialysis. The approval sets in motion further plans for the impending U.S. commercial launch of KORSUVA injection, expected generation of revenue and regulatory submissions, potential future marketing approvals and commercialization in other countries.

The next step in our strategy is the ongoing late and mid-stage clinical development of an oral formulation of difelikefalin to potentially enable its use to expand across all three of the key disease categories with pruritus. A more convenient oral dosing could allow difelikefalin to reach more patients in more diseases, particularly more prevalent dermatologic, systemic, and neurologic conditions. Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) has the potential to significantly alter the treatment algorithm for chronic pruritus.

On August 23, 2021, our lead product, KORSUVA injection, was approved by the FDA for the treatment of moderate-to-severe pruritus associated with CKD in adults undergoing hemodialysis in the United States. We expect commercial launch of KORSUVA injection in April 2022 and associated revenues in the second quarter of 2022.

We have partnered with VFMCRP, a joint venture between Vifor Pharma Group and Fresenius Medical Care, and Vifor to commercialize KORSUVA injection in dialysis patients with CKD-aP in the U.S. under profit share agreements. We have partnered with VFMCRP to commercialize KORSUVA worldwide, excluding Japan (Maruishi/sub-licensee Kissei), and South Korea (CKDP). VFMCRP is a leading nephrology commercial organization with a significant presence in nephrology offices and dialysis centers. We are launching KORSUVA injection into a highly concentrated market. The dialysis market in the U.S. is dominated by two key providers, Fresenius and Davita, which combined control about 75% of the market. In addition, about 80% of the CKD hemodialysis patients are insured by Medicare.

Our U.S. commercial partner, Vifor Pharma Group, submitted the payment reimbursement application for Transition Drug Add-on Payment Adjustment, or TDAPA, and the Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System, or HCPCS, to the U.S. Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services, or CMS, in September 2021. In December 2021, CMS granted TDAPA to KORSUVA injection in the anti-pruritic functional category. TDAPA will apply to KORSUVA injection beginning April 1, 2022 for two years.

For the next phase of our strategy, we have built a pipeline around an oral formulation of difelikefalin, the active compound in KORSUVA injection. We are developing Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) in programs to create potential opportunities across all three disease categories with chronic pruritus. This platform of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) programs is designed to significantly expand the addressable market and patient populations that might benefit from our compound. We have four clinical programs in disease areas with about 16 million potential patients: NDD-CKD associated pruritus, AD, chronic liver disease, or CLD, and NP.

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Based on our completed Phase 2 trials and FDA End of Phase 2 meetings, in the first quarter of 2022, we plan to initiate two Phase 3 registrational programs of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of pruritus, one in NDD-CKD and the other in AD.

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In earlier-stage programs, we have a Phase 2 study ongoing for Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) in the treatment of pruritus associated with NP. NP is a common neurosensory condition and chronic pruritus is the key manifestation of NP. This condition has no FDA-approved treatments nor robust data to support the use of any single therapy. We currently anticipate a readout on this trial in the second quarter of 2022. We believe this program could provide insight on Oral KORSUVA’s (difelikefalin) potential in other chronic neuropathic pruritus conditions. In addition, we have an ongoing Phase 2 study of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of PBC for which we currently anticipate a readout in the second half of 2022. This program could provide insight into whether Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) has utility in other chronic liver diseases.

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We were incorporated and commenced operations in 2004, and our primary activities to date have been organizing and staffing our company, developing our lead product and product candidates, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials of difelikefalin-based product candidates and raising capital. To date, we have financed our operations primarily through sales of our equity and debt securities and payments from license agreements.

Recent Developments

COVID-19 Update

The extent of the impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic on our business, operations and clinical development and regulatory timelines and plans remains uncertain, and will depend on certain developments, including the duration and the outbreak and spread of variants and its impact on our clinical trial enrollment, trial sites, partners, CROs, third-party manufacturers, and other third parties with whom we do business, as well as its impact on regulatory authorities and our key scientific and management personnel. The timing of our submission of our new drug application, or NDA, to the FDA for KORSUVA injection was not affected, as we submitted the NDA in December 2020. The COVID-19 pandemic, however, has affected, and may in the future affect, the initiation of certain trial sites and patient enrollment for our ongoing Phase 2 clinical trials of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for moderate-to-severe pruritus in patients with NP, and for the treatment of pruritus in patients with hepatic impairment due to PBC. While we currently do not expect any significant delays in our clinical development or commercial timelines, the ultimate impact of the evolving COVID-19 pandemic remains difficult to predict.

To the extent possible, we are conducting business as usual, with necessary or advisable modifications to employee travel and employee work locations. We are continuing to actively monitor the rapidly evolving situation related to COVID-19 and may take further actions that alter our operations, including those that may be required by federal, state or local authorities, or that we determine are in the best interests of our employees, partners and other third-parties with whom we do business. The extent to which the ongoing and evolving COVID-19 pandemic may affect our business, operations and clinical development and regulatory timelines and plans, including the resulting impact on our expenditures and capital needs, remains uncertain.

Vifor and VFMCRP Milestone Payments

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In October 2021, after the expiration of the requisite waiting period under the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvement Act of 1976, or the HSR Act, we received a $50.0 million milestone payment from Vifor and issued 3,282,391 shares of our common stock in connection with U.S. regulatory approval of KORSUVA injection on August 23, 2021 (see Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Collaboration and License Agreements – Vifor (International) Ltd.).

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Also in October 2021, we received a $15.0 million milestone payment from VFMCRP in connection with U.S. regulatory approval of KORSUVA injection on August 23, 2021 (see Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Collaboration and License Agreements – VFMCRP).

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Christopher Posner Appointed as President and Chief Executive Officer

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Christopher Posner was appointed as our President and Chief Executive Officer, or CEO, effective November 9, 2021. Mr. Posner joins us from LEO Pharma, Inc., the U.S. affiliate of LEO Pharma A/S, a global leader in medical

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dermatology, where he was President and CEO. Mr. Posner succeeds Dr. Derek Chalmers, who transitioned to a Senior Advisor role to us.

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Overview of Need in Chronic Pruritus

Pruritus, or itch, is defined as an unpleasant sensation that provokes the desire to scratch, which can range from a mild annoyance to an intractable, disabling condition. Chronic pruritus is a significant unmet need with few if any robustly efficacious or pruritus-targeting treatment options. Overall, about one in every eight people globally suffer from chronic pruritus. The condition is often under-reported by patients and often under-treated. The result is a significant and sometimes disabling impact on patients’ quality of life.

Chronic pruritus occurs in primarily three broad disease subsets: systemic diseases, dermatological diseases, and neurological diseases. Each disease category has numerous individual diseases with which chronic pruritus is associated or a key symptomatic feature of that condition.

Certain systemic diseases known to cause pruritus include endocrine and metabolic disease such as CKD and chronic liver disease like PBC, infectious disease, hematologic and lymphoproliferative diseases, visceral neoplasms and drug-induced pruritus.

Dermatological diseases known to cause pruritus include inflammatory dermatoses – such as AD, infectious dermatoses, autoimmune dermatoses, neoplasms, genodermatoses, and dermatoses of pregnancy.

Neurological diseases known to have pruritus include NP, brachioradial pruritus and post-herpetic neuralgia.

Each one of these categories and disease subsets areas has potential as an area of exploration for our lead product, difelikefalin. The unaddressed unmet need remains substantial. According to a study we conducted with IQVIA utilizing medical claims data from 2019, or the IQVIA study, approximately 23 million patients were diagnosed with diseases known to trigger chronic pruritus and received a prescription for an anti-pruritic agent such as corticosteroids, antihistamines, select antidepressants, counterirritants, bile acid sequestrants, rifampin, narcotic antagonists, and partial agonists, topical immunomodulators or gabapentin.

Role of Peripheral Kappa Opioid Receptor (KOR) Agonist in Pruritus

Recent advancements in the understanding of the biology of pruritus have led to the discovery of novel targets in the central nervous system, or CNS, and a unique pathway central to chronic pruritus. Pruritus, commonly referred to as itch, originates in the epidermis and dermal–epidermal junction and is transmitted by itch-selective sensory neuron C fibers, or pruriceptors. Some of these fibers are sensitive to histamine while others are not, and there is evidence for histamine-insensitive C fibers that are activated by numerous itch-inducing substances or pruritogens, many of which initiate signals through interaction with specific G-protein-coupled receptors. In addition, there is increasing evidence for the differential involvement of these systems in various forms of itch which may involve disease-specific pruritogens. As an example, chronic pruritus associated with kidney failure is thought to involve complex interactions among peripheral cells (T cells, mast cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, and keratinocytes) and histamine-insensitive nerve fibers, involving increased release of cytokines, proteases, and neuropeptides, interacting with multiple receptors that lead to exacerbation of itch.

These different peripheral cell types express kappa opioid receptors, or KORs, which can regulate the release of these pruritogenic substances, while the KORs on C fibers are thought to regulate their response to these pruritogens. Because KORs are expressed in peripheral tissues, there is a potential to modulate itch signals peripherally without impacting the central KORs. The itch-sensitive sensory nerve fibers transmit signals to the cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia (that also have KORs), which send fibers to enter the spinal cord. Itch signals then ascend via the spinothalamic tract to multiple brain areas for sensory processing and interactions with cognitive and other systems. Additionally, the activation of kappa receptors via an agonist is thought to reduce itching by functionally counteracting increased mu opioid receptor activity which is suggested to be associated with some chronic forms of pruritus. Activation of the mu opioid receptor in the brain and in the peripheral nerve endings results in itching while non-selective mu opioid

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antagonists can inhibit itching. KOR stimulation inhibits the effects of mu receptor activation both centrally and peripherally.

Our novel compound, difelikefalin, is a highly selective, predominantly peripherally acting KOR agonist. Its design includes specific characteristics that limit entry into the CNS. As a KOR agonist, difelikefalin’s mechanism of action turns off the itch sensation by acting on the peripheral neurons responsible for sensing pruritus. In other words, difelikefalin disrupts the itch sensation of chronic pruritus at the nerve level. In addition, difelikefalin acts on KORs expressed on a range of activated immune cells to subsequently block the release of pruritogenic cytokines. A central hypothesis driving our development work is that by acting on peripheral nerves that sense pruritus, difelikefalin may be able to address pruritus regardless of the underlying disease state.

Corporate Strategy

Our mission is to be the leader in the treatment of chronic pruritus and transform the way pruritus is treated to improve the quality of life for millions of people who suffer from pruritus. Our corporate strategy is focused on changing the standard of care and advancing the scientific understanding of pruritus. The strategy seeks to leverage and maximize the highly novel, first-in-class mechanism of action - peripherally acting KOR agonist - of our lead product, difelikefalin, to potentially treat pruritus across all three of these key disease categories. Our strategic priorities are to launch and maximize the commercial potential of KORSUVA injection and to develop Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) to expand across all categories of pruritus, thus changing how it is treated in practice. Key elements and priorities of the strategy include:

Optimize the commercial potential of KORSUVA injection in the U.S. and, if approved, throughout the rest of the world.  In August 2021, the FDA approved KORSUVA injection as the first and only FDA-approved therapy for the treatment of moderate-to-severe pruritis associated with CKD in adults undergoing hemodialysis. It was approved under Breakthrough Therapy Designation. In December 2021, CMS granted TDAPA reimbursement status, effective April 1, 2022, for two years. Our license and collaboration agreements to commercialize KORSUVA injection, which include sales and marketing infrastructure support from our partners, are a key part of our strategic focus to maximize the potential of our product rapidly and efficiently. We expect KORSUVA injection will be available to patients for commercial use in the U.S. in April 2022 and associated revenues in the second quarter of 2022. 

Advance the Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) platform by initiating Phase 3 programs in chronic pruritus associated with NDD-CKD and AD.  Building upon the KORSUVA injection approval in CKD-aP in adults undergoing hemodialysis, we completed Phase 2 trials for Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) in both NDD-CKD and AD associated pruritus and we conducted End of Phase 2 meetings with the FDA in 2021. We will initiate Phase 3 clinical trials in pruritus associated with NDD-CKD and pruritus associated with AD in the first quarter of 2022, with the goal of gaining indications in both.

Expand the Clinical Utility of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) by pursuing indications for the treatment of chronic pruritus in NP and CLD.  We believe that Oral KORSUVA’s (difelikefalin) novel mechanism of action offers a portfolio in a product opportunity and has therapeutic potential in several other patient populations with neurologic-related pruritus and CLD-aP. We initiated a Phase 2 program in NP in January 2021 and expect to report top-line data in the second quarter of 2022. We also have a Phase 2 program underway for Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of pruritus in patients with hepatic impairment due to PBC. We expect to have top-line data in the second half of 2022.

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Our current product and product candidate pipeline is summarized in the table below:

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Difelikefalin – Our Lead Product

Our product candidate, difelikefalin, is a new chemical entity, which is designed to selectively stimulate kappa, rather than mu, and delta opioid receptors. Difelikefalin has been designed with specific chemical characteristics to restrict its entry into the CNS and further limit its mechanism of action to KORs in the peripheral nervous system and on immune cells. Activation of kappa receptors in the CNS is known to result in some undesirable effects, including dysphoria. Since difelikefalin modulates kappa receptor signals peripherally without any significant activation of opioid receptors in the CNS, it is generally not expected to produce the CNS-related side effects of mu opioid agonists (such as addiction and respiratory depression) or centrally-active kappa opioid agonists (such as dysphoria and hallucinations). Difelikefalin has been administered to more than 3,000 human subjects in Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical trials as an I.V. infusion, bolus intravenous injection or oral capsule or tablet, and thus far has been observed to be generally well tolerated in multiple clinical trials.

Based on the non-clinical and clinical studies we have completed to date, we believe that KORSUVA injection and Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for our other product candidates, if approved, would be attractive to both patients and physicians as a treatment for chronic pruritus across the spectrum of systemic, neurological, and dermatological variations of the disease.

KORSUVA Injection for Moderate-to-Severe Pruritus Associated with CKD in Adults Undergoing Hemodialysis

CKD is a clinical condition wherein progressive kidney damage leads to an impairment of kidney function over time. Primary risk factors culminating into CKD include diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, or hereditary renal disease. Early-stage disease is generally associated with few mild clinical manifestations; however, CKD can progress to kidney failure or end-stage renal disease, or ESRD, which is fatal without dialysis or transplantation. According to the National Kidney Foundation, ESRD is estimated to affect approximately 750,000 individuals per year in the U.S., of which approximately 500,000 patients undergo regular dialysis.

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Chronic pruritus is one of the many comorbidities of CKD, characterized by a highly unpleasant and irritating sensation that triggers an urge to scratch the skin. CKD-aP adversely affects patient quality of life and can result in infections, sleep-deprivation, depression, and even increased risk of mortality.

CKD-aP’s intractable systemic itch has a high prevalence. According to Fresenius Medical Care, a world leading provider of products and medical care for dialysis patients, there were approximately 3.2 million patients globally undergoing dialysis in 2017. According to the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study published in December 2017 in the Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrologists, it is estimated that nearly 70% of these patients suffer from some form of CKD-aP with approximately 40% of these patients experiencing moderate to severe pruritus.

KORSUVA Injection Approved by the FDA in August 2021

KORSUVA injection was approved by the FDA on August 23, 2021 and is the first and only product approved by the FDA for the treatment of moderate-to-severe pruritus associated with CKD in adult patients undergoing hemodialysis. KORSUVA injection is not scheduled as a controlled substance. The clinical development program was the largest in CKD-aP patients undergoing hemodialysis with over 1,300 patients participating.

In June 2017, the FDA granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation to KORSUVA injection for the treatment of CKD-aP in hemodialysis patients. The KORSUVA injection NDA received Priority Review by the FDA, which is granted to therapies that, if approved, would offer significant improvements in the safety or effectiveness of the treatment, diagnosis, or prevention of serious conditions when compared to standard applications.

KORSUVA injection is the first and only FDA-approved product in the United States to treat CKD-aP in adults undergoing hemodialysis. There are no approved products in Europe to treat CKD-aP. Patients are generally managed with a multitude of products including corticosteroids, gabapentin, antihistamines, antidepressants and others with limited efficacy and tolerability. There is one product, nalfurafine (Remitch®) marketed by Toray Industries, approved to treat CKD-aP in Japan, but not approved in either the U.S. or Europe.

In October 2020, we entered into a license agreement with Vifor pursuant to which we granted Vifor an exclusive license solely in the United States to use, distribute, offer for sale, promote, sell and otherwise commercialize KORSUVA injection for all therapeutic uses relating to the inhibition, prevention or treatment of itch associated with pruritus in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients in the United States.

Our U.S. commercial partner, Vifor Pharma Group, submitted the payment reimbursement application for TDAPA and HCPCS to CMS in September 2021. In December 2021, CMS granted TDAPA to KORSUVA injection in the anti-pruritic functional category. TDAPA will apply to KORSUVA injection beginning April 1, 2022 for two years. CMS expressed in its written communication to us and Vifor Pharma, a continuing interest in engaging with the companies regarding potential post-TDAPA support to ensure all beneficiaries with ESRD have access to innovative products such as KORSUVA injection.

Commercialization of KORSUVA injection in the U.S is planned for April 2022 with associated revenues in the second quarter of 2022.

Clinical Results

KORSUVA injection was approved by the FDA on August 23, 2021 and is the first and only product approved for the treatment of moderate-to-severe pruritus associated with CKD in adult patients undergoing hemodialysis.

It was approved based on the NDA filing that was supported by positive data from two pivotal Phase 3 trials – KALM^TM-1, conducted in the U.S., and the global KALM-2 trial, as well as supportive data from an additional 32 clinical studies. KORSUVA injection was found to be generally well tolerated in the pivotal studies highlighted below.

In April 2020, we announced positive top-line results from our KALM-2 pivotal Phase 3 trial of KORSUVA injection in hemodialysis patients with moderate-to-severe CKD-aP. The trial met the primary and key secondary

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endpoints after 12 weeks of treatment. The study met the primary efficacy endpoint with 54% of the patients receiving 0.5 mcg/kg of KORSUVA injection versus 42% of patients receiving placebo achieving at least a three-point improvement from baseline with respect to the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching intensity numeric rating scale, or NRS, Table of Contents 11 score at week 12 (p= 0.02). The study also met the key secondary endpoint with 41% of patients receiving KORSUVA injection achieving a four-point or greater improvement from baseline in the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching NRS score at week 12 versus 28% for patients receiving placebo (p= 0.01). In this trial, KORSUVA injection was generally well-tolerated with a safety profile consistent with that seen in KALM-1 and the KORSUVA clinical program in patients with CKD-aP.

Overall, the incidence of adverse effects, or AEs, and serious AEs were similar across both KORSUVA injection and placebo groups. The most common treatment emergent AEs reported in greater than 5% of patients were diarrhea (8.1% KORSUVA vs 5.5% placebo), falls (6.8% KORSUVA vs 5.1% placebo), vomiting (6.4% KORSUVA vs 5.9% placebo), nausea (6.4% KORSUVA vs 4.2% placebo) and dizziness (5.5% KORSUVA vs 5.1% placebo).

In May 2019, we announced positive results from the double blinded phase of our KALM-1 pivotal Phase 3 efficacy trial of KORSUVA injection for the treatment of CKD-aP in patients undergoing hemodialysis. The trial met the primary and all secondary endpoints after 12 weeks of treatment. The study met the primary efficacy endpoint with 51% of the patients receiving 0.5 mcg/kg of KORSUVA injection versus 28% of patients receiving placebo achieving at least a three-point improvement from baseline with respect to the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching intensity NRS score at week 12 (p= 0.000019). The study also met all secondary endpoints, including assessment of itch-related quality of life changes measured using self-assessment Skindex-10 (patients receiving KORSUVA experienced 43% improvement versus patients receiving placebo, p= 0.0004) and 5-D Itch scales (patients receiving KORSUVA experienced 35% improvement versus patients receiving placebo, p= 0.0009). In addition, 39% of patients receiving KORSUVA injection achieved a four-point or greater improvement from baseline in the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching NRS score at week 12 versus 18% for patients receiving placebo (p= 0.000032), another key secondary endpoint. In this trial, KORSUVA injection was generally well-tolerated with a safety profile consistent with that seen in earlier trials.

Overall, the incidence of AEs and serious AEs were similar across both KORSUVA injection and placebo groups. The most common treatment emergent AEs reported in greater than 5% of patients were diarrhea (9.5% KORSUVA vs 3.7% placebo), dizziness (6.9% KORSUVA vs 1.1% placebo), vomiting (5.3% KORSUVA vs 3.2% placebo) and nasopharyngitis (3.2% KORSUVA vs 5.3% placebo).

Update on KORSUVA injection outside the U.S.

Our partner, VFMCRP, submitted a Marketing Authorization Application, or MAA, to the European Medicines Agency, or EMA, in March 2021, which was subsequently accepted for review by the EMA. If approved by the EMA, KORSUVA injection would receive marketing authorization in all member states of the European Union, or EU, as well as in Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. The EMA’s decision on the EU MAA is expected in the second quarter of 2022.

In addition, our partner in Japan, Maruishi, announced positive Phase 3 top-line data in January 2022. Maruishi and its sublicensee Kissei confirmed the primary endpoint was achieved in a Japanese Phase 3 clinical study (double-blind, placebo-controlled period) of difelikefalin injection for the treatment of pruritus in hemodialysis patients. In the Phase 3 study, 178 patients were administered difelikefalin or placebo for 6 weeks followed by an open-label extension period of difelikefalin administration for 52 weeks. The primary endpoint, change in itch NRS score, and the secondary endpoint, change in itching scores of Shiratori severity criteria, were significantly improved from baseline compared to the placebo group. Difelikefalin was well-tolerated.

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VFMCRP has submitted a marketing application for KORSUVA injection via the Access Consortium (which also includes applications to Canada, Switzerland, Australia, and Singapore) in the second quarter of 2021. Decision on this application is expected in the second quarter of 2022.

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Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) Programs

Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for Treatment of Non-Dialysis-Dependent Chronic Kidney Disease (NDD-CKD) Associated Pruritus

CKD-aP (also known as uremic pruritus) is a frequent and wearisome symptom in patients with NDD-CKD (Stage I – V). We are initiating a Phase 3 program with Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of pruritus in NDD-CKD, specifically in patients diagnosed with Stage IV and V CKD. There are approximately 1.2 million patients diagnosed with Stage IV and Stage V CKD in the United States and approximately 300,000 of these patients suffer from moderate-to-severe pruritus.

There are no FDA-approved treatment options specifically for this indication in the U.S. or Europe. Patients are generally managed with a multitude of products including corticosteroids, gabapentin, antihistamines, antidepressants, and others with varying degrees of success. There is one product, nalfurafine (Remitch®) marketed by Toray Industries, approved to treat CKD-aP in Japan, but not approved in either the U.S. or Europe.

In December 2019, we announced top-line data from our Phase 2 trial of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of pruritus in NDD–CKD patients diagnosed with Stage III – V CKD. The Phase 2, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled 12-week trial was designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of three tablet strengths (0.25 mg, 0.5 mg and 1 mg, once daily administration) of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) versus placebo in approximately 240 stage III - V (moderate-to-severe) CKD patients with moderate-to-severe pruritus. The primary efficacy endpoint was the change from baseline in the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching NRS score at week 12 of the treatment period. Secondary endpoints include change from baseline in itch-related quality of life scores at the end of week 12, as assessed by the total Skindex-10 and 5-D itch scores, as well as the proportion of patients achieving an improvement from baseline ≥3 points with respect to the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching NRS score at week 12.

Patients treated with the 1 mg tablet strength of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) achieved the primary endpoint of statistically significant reduction in weekly mean of the daily worst itching NRS scores vs. placebo after the 12-week treatment period (-4.4 difelikefalin vs. -3.3 placebo, p=0.018). The treatment was statistically significant after two weeks of treatment and sustained through the 12-week treatment period. Regarding secondary endpoints, the proportion of patients on 1 mg tablet strength achieving a 3 point or greater improvement from baseline in the weekly mean of the daily worst itching NRS score at week 12 was 72% vs. 58% for placebo but did not achieve statistical significance. Furthermore, patients on 1 mg tablet strength showed positive improvements vs. placebo in itch quality of life endpoints as measured using self-assessment Skindex-10 and 5-D Itch scales but did not achieve statistical significance.

Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) was generally well-tolerated with a safety profile consistent with that seen in earlier KORSUVA clinical trials. Overall, the incidence of treatment AEs were similar across difelikefalin and placebo groups. The most common AEs reported in >5% of patients in the 1 mg difelikefalin group vs. placebo were dizziness (7.5% difelikefalin vs. 0% placebo), fall (6% difelikefalin vs. 0% placebo), diarrhea (6% difelikefalin vs. 1.5% placebo) and constipation (6% difelikefalin vs. 3% placebo).

In April 2021, we held an End of Phase 2 Meeting with the FDA to discuss the results of the Phase 2 trial of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) in NDD CKD-aP and the potential Phase 3 program. The FDA indicated the acceptability of Stage V pre-dialysis CKD patients as a viable patient population for a program. In November 2021, the FDA provided written guidance indicating the patient population can be expanded to include the group of Stage IV pre-dialysis patients with advanced CKD in a registration program consisting of two pivotal Phase 3 clinical trials.

We expect to initiate the Phase 3 NDD CKD-aP program in the first quarter of 2022.

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Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for Treatment of Moderate-to-Severe Pruritus Associated with Atopic Dermatitis (AD)

AD is a chronic, pruritic inflammatory dermatosis that affects up to 25% of children and 2% to 5% of adults. Chronic pruritus is one of the defining features of AD. The itch is so common in AD that AD is often described as the itch that rashes. The point prevalence of chronic pruritus ranges between 87% to 100% in AD. According to a study published in Allergy in 2018, the point prevalence in adults in the U.S. is 4.9%, or approximately 12 million adults. Both quality of life and psychosocial well-being are known to negatively correlate with itch severity. The associated psychosocial morbidity of this distressing symptom includes sleep disruption, depression, agitation, anxiety, altered eating habits, reduced self-esteem and difficulty concentrating.

Additionally, AD patients can be segmented into groups based on the severity of their skin lesions as well as the severity of their itch. In a study published in Annals of Allergy, Asthma Immunology in 2021, it was found that nearly 25% of AD patients had mild-to-moderate lesions but still had severe pruritus. This “itch dominant” AD phenotype has a significant unmet medical need as their skin lesions have been controlled, but their severe itch has persisted. Most times, these patients have tried available agents (i.e., topical therapies, including corticosteroids, antihistamines) to control pruritus related to their AD unsuccessfully resulting in a significant patient population that needs a new oral agent for pruritus relief.

In April 2021, we announced top-line data from our Phase 2 KARE clinical trial. The KARE Phase 2 trial was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for moderate-to-severe pruritus in 401 adult subjects with AD-aP. KARE enrolled 64% of patients characterized as mild-to-moderate (BSA<10%) and 36% falling into the moderate-to-severe category (BSA>10%). Subjects were randomized to three tablet strengths of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin): 0.25 mg, 0.5 mg and 1 mg taken twice daily (BID) versus placebo for 12 weeks followed by 4 weeks of an active extension phase. A prespecified interim conditional power assessment was conducted after approximately 50% of the originally targeted patient number completed the designated 12-week treatment period. Based on the Independent Data Monitoring Committee’s recommendation, the sample size for each of the 0.5 mg dose and placebo groups were increased, taking the total trial size up by 28%.

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KARE’s primary efficacy endpoint was change from baseline in the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour Itch NRS score at week 12 of the treatment period for the intent to treat, or ITT, population. Although no dose group met this endpoint, a statistically significant improvement from baseline was evident as early as week 1 for the 1 mg dose group, which was sustained through 75% of the treatment period.

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In a prespecified analysis, a statistically significant change in the primary efficacy endpoint was observed in the mild-to-moderate (BSA<10%) patient population (p=0.036, All doses vs placebo), which was evident at week 1 and sustained through the treatment period.

The key secondary endpoint for KARE was the assessment of the proportion of patients achieving an improvement from baseline of ≥4 points with respect to the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour Itch NRS score at week 12 (4-point Responder Analysis). No dose group met this endpoint for the ITT population.

Prespecified analysis by disease severity indicated a statistically significant improvement in the 4-point Responder Analysis in the mild-to-moderate (BSA<10%) patient population with 33% of difelikefalin-treated patients achieving a ≥4-point reduction in NRS at Week 12 versus 19% in the placebo group for the 0.5 mg dose (p=0.046). All doses performed similarly (0.25 mg, 0.5 mg, and 1 mg) versus placebo.

Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) was generally well-tolerated across all doses.

We conducted an End of Phase 2 Meeting with the FDA in the third quarter of 2021 and aim to initiate a Phase 3 program for the treatment of pruritus in AD patients in the first quarter of 2022.

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Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for Treatment of Moderate-to-Severe Pruritus Associated with Notalgia Paresthetica (NP)

NP is a common, neurosensory condition caused by alteration and damage to thoracic spinal nerves and is characterized by chronic pruritus in the upper back. It is estimated that chronic pruritus affects up to 13% of the United States population. NP falls within the subcategory of chronic neuropathic pruritus which comprises approximately 8% of all cases of chronic pruritus. According to the IQVIA study, an estimated 1 million patients were diagnosed by dermatologists with ICD10 codes commonly used for NP in the United States.

There are no FDA-approved treatments for NP. The management of NP is challenging and conventional treatments for pruritus, such as antihistamines and topical steroids, are largely ineffective.

In January 2021, we initiated a Phase 2 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial that is designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for moderate-to-severe pruritus in approximately 120 adult subjects with NP. Subjects were randomized to receive Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) 2 mg twice daily versus placebo for eight weeks followed by a 4-week active extension period and follow-up visit approximately 14 days after the last dose of the study. The primary efficacy endpoint is the change from baseline in the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching NRS score at week 8 of the treatment period. Secondary endpoints include improvement in itch-related quality of life assessed by the change from baseline to Week 8 and a change from baseline in itch-related sleep disturbance subscale measured by the itch medical outcomes study at week 8.

We currently aim to have top-line data in the second quarter of 2022.

Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for Treatment of Chronic Liver Disease-Associated Pruritus (CLD-aP)

Pruritus develops in association with chronic liver diseases including hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and PBC. It is estimated that approximately 6 million patients were diagnosed with CLD in 2019 in the United States and approximately 3 million patients received a prescription for an anti-pruritic. There are no FDA-approved therapies for pruritus associated with CLD, including PBC. Current antipruritic therapies, primarily antihistamines and corticosteroids as well as other therapies tried off-label, are largely ineffective in treating the disease and/or can produce significant side effects.

We are currently evaluating Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) in PBC for which it has been estimated that 70% of patients experience pruritus to initially establish the proof-of-concept in CLD-aP.

In June 2019, we announced the initiation of a Phase 2 trial of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of pruritus in patients with hepatic impairment due to PBC. The Phase 2 multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled 16-week trial is designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of a 1 mg tablet of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) taken twice daily versus placebo in approximately 60 patients with PBC and moderate-to-severe pruritus. The primary efficacy endpoint is the change from baseline in the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching NRS score at week 16 of the treatment period. Secondary endpoints include change from baseline in itch-related quality of life scores at the end of week 16 as assessed by the Skindex-10 and 5-D itch scales, as well as the assessment of proportion of patients achieving an improvement from baseline of ≥3 points with respect to the weekly mean of the daily 24-hour worst itching NRS score at week 16. We continue to screen patients in this ongoing Phase 2 trial and, primarily due to the ongoing effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on patient enrollment, we currently aim to have top-line data in the second half of 2022.

Intravenous Difelikefalin for Treatment of Acute Postoperative Pain (PONV)

We have also investigated difelikefalin for the treatment of pain in an acute care setting. Difelikefalin is designed to provide pain relief without stimulating mu opioid receptors and therefore potentially without mu opioid-related side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, respiratory depression and euphoria.

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In June 2018, we reported positive top-line data from the adaptive Phase 2/3 post-operative pain trial of I.V. difelikefalin in patients undergoing abdominal surgeries. At the higher dose of 1 mcg/kg dose, I.V. difelikefalin demonstrated statistically significant reductions in pain intensity compared to placebo at all pre-specified post-operative assessment periods. Additionally, I.V. difelikefalin treatment resulted in statistically significant reductions in the incidence of post-operative nausea and vomiting over the 24-hour period post-surgery for both the lower and higher doses of 0.5 and 1 mcg/kg, respectively.

At this time, we have de-prioritized this program as part of our strategy to focus on pruritus.

Collaboration and License Agreements

Vifor (International) Ltd. (Vifor)

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In October 2020, we entered into a license agreement, or the Vifor Agreement, with Vifor under which we granted Vifor an exclusive license solely in the United States to use, distribute, offer for sale, promote, sell and otherwise commercialize KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection for all therapeutic uses relating to the inhibition, prevention or treatment of itch associated with pruritus in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients in the United States. Under the Vifor Agreement, we retain all rights with respect to the clinical development of, and activities to gain regulatory approvals of, KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection in the United States.

Under the terms of the Vifor Agreement, we received from Vifor an upfront payment of $100.0 million and an additional payment of $50.0 million for the purchase of an aggregate of 2,939,552 shares of our common stock at a price of $17.0094 per share, which represents a premium over a pre-determined average closing price of our common stock. The purchase of our common stock was governed by a separate stock purchase agreement, or the Vifor Stock Purchase Agreement.

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After U.S. regulatory approval of KORSUVA injection in August 2021, we received an additional $50.0 million in October 2021 for the purchase of an aggregate of 3,282,391 shares of our common stock at a price of $15.23 per share, which represents a 20% premium to the 30-day trailing average price of our common stock. The purchase of our common stock was governed by the Vifor Stock Purchase Agreement. The excess of the stock purchase price over the cost of the purchased shares at the closing price of our common stock on the date of the achievement of the milestone of $5.0 million was included as license and milestone fees revenue for accounting purposes for the year ended December 31, 2021. In addition, pursuant to the Vifor Agreement, we are eligible to receive payments of up to $240.0 million upon the achievement of certain sales-based milestones (see Notes 12 and 13 of Notes to Financial Statements, Collaboration and Licensing Agreements and Revenue Recognition, respectively, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K).

We retain the right to make and have made KORSUVA injection, on a non-exclusive basis, in the United States for commercial sale of KORSUVA injection for use in all therapeutic uses to prevent, inhibit or treat itch associated with pruritus in hemodialysis and peritoneal-dialysis patients anywhere in the world and for supply of KORSUVA injection to Vifor under the terms of a supply agreement, or the Vifor Supply Agreement, which was executed in September 2021. The supply price is our cost of goods sold, or COGS, as calculated under generally-accepted accounting principles in the United States, or GAAP, plus an agreed upon margin. The Vifor Supply Agreement will co-terminate with the Vifor Agreement.

The Vifor Agreement provides full commercialization rights in dialysis clinics to Vifor in the United States under a profit-sharing arrangement. Pursuant to the profit-sharing arrangement, we will generally be entitled to 60% of the net profits (as defined in the Vifor Agreement) from sales of KORSUVA injection in the United States (excluding sales to Fresenius Medical Center dialysis clinics, compensation for which is governed by the VFMCRP Agreement) and Vifor is entitled to 40% of such net profits, subject to potential temporary adjustment in future years based on certain conditions. Under the Vifor Agreement, in consideration of Vifor’s conduct of the marketing, promotion, selling and distribution of KORSUVA injection in the United States, we will pay a marketing and distribution fee to Vifor based on the level of annual net sales. This fee will be deducted from product sales in calculating the net profits that are subject to the profit-sharing arrangement under the Vifor Agreement.

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The Vifor Agreement will continue in effect until its expiration upon the cessation of commercial sale of KORSUVA injection in the United States by Vifor and its affiliates and sublicensees, or until the earlier termination of the Vifor Agreement.

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In connection with the Vifor Agreement, the parties entered into a separate stock purchase agreement, or the Vifor Purchase Agreement, governing the issuance of our common stock to Vifor. Pursuant to the Vifor Purchase Agreement, Vifor will not, and will not cause any direct or indirect affiliate to, during the period beginning on October 15, 2020 and ending at the close of business on October 15, 2022, or the Restricted Period, (i) offer, pledge, sell, contract to sell, sell any option or contract to purchase, purchase any option or contract to sell, grant any option, right or warrant to purchase, lend, or otherwise transfer or dispose of, directly or indirectly, any shares of our common stock or any securities convertible into or exercisable or exchangeable for our common stock (including without limitation, common stock or such other securities which may be deemed to be beneficially owned by Vifor in accordance with the rules and regulations of the SEC and securities which may be issued upon exercise of a stock option or warrant) owned by Vifor as of the date hereof or acquired prior to the end of the Restricted Period (collectively with the common stock, referred to as the Lock-Up Securities, except any such sale, option or contract by and between Vifor and one of its affiliates (including Vifor Pharma Group Ltd. or VFMCRP), (ii) enter into any hedging, swap or other agreement or transaction that transfers, in whole or in part, any of the economic consequences of ownership of the Lock-Up Securities, whether any such transaction described in clause (i) or (ii) above is to be settled by delivery of Lock-Up Securities, in cash or otherwise, (iii) make any demand for or exercise any right with respect to the registration of any Lock-Up Securities, or (iv) publicly disclose the intention to do any of the foregoing.

Under the Vifor Purchase Agreement, the parties also agreed that, in certain circumstances, upon the request of Vifor, the parties will enter into a registration rights agreement prior to the end of the Restricted Period that would provide Vifor (or its affiliate transferee) customary registration rights with respect to the shares of common stock issued pursuant to the stock purchase agreement following the expiration of the Restricted Period.

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Vifor Fresenius Medical Care Renal Pharma Ltd. (VFMCRP)

In May 2018, we entered into a license agreement, or the VFMCRP Agreement, with VFMCRP, a joint venture between Vifor Pharma Group and Fresenius Medical Care, under which we granted VFMCRP a license to seek regulatory approval to commercialize, import, export, use, distribute, offer for sale, promote, sell and otherwise commercialize KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection for all therapeutic uses to prevent, inhibit or treat itch associated with pruritus in hemodialysis and peritoneal-dialysis patients worldwide (excluding the United States, Japan and South Korea). We retain full development and commercialization rights for KORSUVA injection for the treatment of CKD-aP in dialysis patients in the U.S. except in the dialysis clinics of Fresenius Medical Care North America, or FMCNA, where we and VFMCRP will promote KORSUVA injection under a profit-sharing arrangement.

Upon entry into the VFMCRP Agreement, VFMCRP made a non-refundable, non-creditable $50 million upfront payment to us and Vifor purchased 1,174,827 shares of our common stock for $20 million, at a premium for the price of $17.024 per share, which represented a premium over a pre-determined average closing price of our common stock. The purchase of our common stock was governed by a separate stock purchase agreement.

After U.S. regulatory approval of KORSUVA injection in August 2021, we received a $15.0 million regulatory milestone payment in October 2021, which was recorded as license and milestone fees revenue for the year ended December 31, 2021 (see Notes 12 and 13 of Notes to Financial Statements, Collaboration and Licensing Agreements and Revenue Recognition, respectively, in this Annual Report on Form 10-K).

We are eligible to receive from VFMCRP additional regulatory and commercial milestone payments in the aggregate of up to $455.0 million, consisting of up to $15.0 million in regulatory milestones and up to $440.0 million in tiered commercial milestones, all of which are sales-related. We are also eligible to receive tiered double-digit royalty payments based on annual net sales, as defined, of KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection in the licensed territories. In the United States, we and VFMCRP will promote KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection in the dialysis clinics of FMCNA under a profit-sharing arrangement (subject to the terms and conditions of the VFMCRP Agreement) based on net FMCNA clinic sales recorded by us.

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We retain the right to make and have made KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection worldwide (excluding the United States, Japan and South Korea), or the Territory, for commercial sale by VFMCRP in or outside the Territory, and for supply of KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection to VFMCRP under the terms of a supply agreement, or the VFMCRP Supply Agreement, which was executed in May 2020. The supply price is our COGS, as calculated under GAAP, plus an agreed upon margin. The VFMCRP Supply Agreement will co-terminate with the VFMCRP Agreement.

Maruishi Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Maruishi)

In April 2013, we entered into a license agreement with Maruishi, or the Maruishi Agreement, under which we granted Maruishi an exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize drug products containing difelikefalin in Japan in the acute pain and uremic pruritus fields. Maruishi has a right of first negotiation for any other indications for which we develop difelikefalin and, under certain conditions, Maruishi may substitute another pruritus indication for the uremic pruritus indication originally included in its license from us. Maruishi is required to use commercially reasonable efforts, at its expense, to develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize difelikefalin in Japan. We are required to use commercially reasonable efforts, at our expense, to develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize difelikefalin in the United States.

In January 2022, Maruishi and its sublicensee Kissei confirmed the primary endpoint was achieved in a Japanese Phase 3 clinical study (double-blind, placebo-controlled period) of difelikefalin injection for the treatment of pruritus in hemodialysis patients. In the Phase 3 study, 178 patients were administered difelikefalin or placebo for 6 weeks followed by an open-label extension period of difelikefalin administration for 52 weeks. The primary endpoint, change in itch NRS score, and the secondary endpoint, change in itching scores of Shiratori severity criteria, were significantly improved from baseline compared to the placebo group. Difelikefalin was well-tolerated.

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Under the terms of the Maruishi Agreement, we received a non-refundable and non-creditable upfront license fee of $15.0 million and are eligible to receive up to an aggregate of $10.5 million in clinical development and regulatory milestones (before contractual foreign currency exchange adjustments). In January 2021, we met the milestone criteria, as set forth in the Maruishi Agreement, for Maruishi’s first initiation of a Phase 3 trial for uremic pruritus in Japan. As a result, we received the $2.0 million milestone payment ($1.9 million after contractual foreign currency exchange adjustments) in May 2021. As of December 31, 2021, we have received $4.5 million (before contractual foreign currency exchange adjustments) of clinical development and regulatory milestones from Maruishi. We are also eligible to receive a one-time sales milestone of one billion Yen when a certain sales level is attained. We also receive a mid-double-digit percentage of all non-royalty payments received by Maruishi from its sublicensees, if any. We are also eligible to receive tiered royalties based on net sales, if any, with minimum royalty rates in the low double digits and maximum royalty rates in the low twenties. Maruishi’s obligation to pay us royalties continues, on a product-by-product basis, until the expiration of the last-to-expire licensed patent covering such product or the later expiration of any market exclusivity period.

The Maruishi Agreement continues until terminated. Either we or Maruishi may terminate the Maruishi Agreement for the other party’s breach of the agreement or bankruptcy. Maruishi may terminate the agreement at any time at will. We may terminate the agreement as a whole if Maruishi challenges the licensed patent rights, and we may terminate the agreement with respect to any indication if Maruishi discontinues its development activities. In addition, in connection with the Maruishi Agreement, Maruishi made an $8.0 million equity investment in our company.

Chong Kun Dang Pharmaceutical Corporation (CKDP)

In April 2012, we entered into a license agreement with CKDP, or the CKDP Agreement, under which we granted CKDP an exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize drug products containing difelikefalin in South Korea. CKDP is required to use commercially reasonable efforts, at its expense, to develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize difelikefalin in South Korea. We are required to use commercially reasonable efforts, at our expense, to develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize difelikefalin in the United States.

Under the terms of the CKDP Agreement, we received a non-refundable and non-creditable $0.6 million upfront payment and are eligible to receive up to an aggregate of $3.8 million in development and regulatory milestones (before

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South Korean withholding taxes). During the year ended December 31, 2020, we received a milestone payment of $0.6 million (net of South Korean withholding tax) from CKDP, as set forth in the CKDP Agreement, for completion of a Phase 3 trial for uremic pruritus in the United States. As of December 31, 2021, we have received $2.3 million (before South Korean withholding tax) of development and regulatory milestones. We are also eligible to receive a mid-double-digit percentage of all non-royalty payments received by CKDP from its sublicensees, if any, and tiered royalties ranging from the high single digits to the high teens based on net sales, if any. CKDP’s obligation to pay us royalties continues, on a product-by-product basis, until the expiration of the last-to-expire licensed patent covering such product or the later expiration of any market exclusivity period.

The CKDP Agreement continues until CKDP no longer has any obligation to pay us royalties on any product. Either we or CKDP may terminate the CKDP Agreement for the other party’s breach of the CKDP Agreement or bankruptcy. CKDP may terminate the CKDP Agreement if any of the licensed patent rights is invalid, unenforceable, is narrowed in scope or is deemed unpatentable, except as a result of a challenge by CKDP, or a third party commercializes a product containing a compound identical to difelikefalin without infringing any of the licensed patent rights in South Korea. We may terminate the CKDP Agreement if CKDP challenges the licensed patent rights or if a third party in South Korea owns an issued patent that claims difelikefalin and CKDP’s sale of products would infringe that patent. In addition, in connection with the CKDP Agreement, CKDP made a $0.4 million equity investment in our company.

Manufacturing and License Agreements

Polypeptide Laboratories S.A. (PPL)

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In July 2021, we entered into an Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient, or API, Commercial Supply Agreement with Polypeptide Laboratories S.A., or PPL, that defines each party’s responsibilities with respect to PPL’s manufacture and supply of API for the difelikefalin injection product candidate. Under the API Commercial Supply Agreement, PPL shall manufacture API at its facility for sale and supply to us, in the amounts as set forth in purchase orders to be provided by us. We will be required to purchase our requirements of API for each year of the term of the agreement, based on internal forecasts.

The API Commercial Supply Agreement will continue until the fifth anniversary of the approval by the FDA of the NDA for KORSUVA injection, unless the API Commercial Supply Agreement is earlier terminated, and will automatically be extended for successive five-year periods unless either party gives notice to the other party of its intention to terminate.

Enteris Biopharma, Inc. (Enteris)

In August 2019, we entered into a Non-Exclusive License Agreement, or the Enteris License Agreement, with Enteris. Pursuant to the Enteris License Agreement, Enteris granted to us a non-exclusive, royalty-bearing license, including the right to grant sublicenses, under certain proprietary technology and patent rights related to or covering formulations for oral delivery of peptide active pharmaceutical ingredients with functional excipients to enhance permeability and/or solubility, known as Enteris’s Peptelligence^® technology, to develop, manufacture and commercialize products using such technology worldwide, excluding Japan and South Korea.

As consideration for the licensed rights under the Enteris License Agreement, we paid an upfront fee equal to $8.0 million, consisting of $4.0 million in cash and $4.0 million in shares of our common stock pursuant to the Enteris Purchase Agreement described below. As a result, we recognized $8.0 million of R&D expense related to the Enteris License Agreement during the year ended December 31, 2019.

We are also obligated, pursuant to the Enteris License Agreement, to pay Enteris (1) milestone payments upon the achievement of certain development, regulatory and commercial milestones and (2) low-single digit royalty percentages on net sales of licensed products, subject to reductions in specified circumstances. Until the second anniversary of the entry into the Enteris License Agreement, we had the right, but not the obligation, to terminate our obligation to pay any royalties under the Enteris License Agreement in exchange for a lump sum payment in cash, or the Royalty Buyout. We did not exercise our Royalty Buyout right and such right expired in August 2021. During the years ended December 31,

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2021 and 2020, we paid $15.0 million and $5.0 million, respectively, to Enteris for milestones earned in relation to the Enteris License Agreement, which were recorded in R&D expense for the respective periods.

The Enteris License Agreement will expire on a country-by-country, licensed product-by-licensed product basis upon the later of (1) the expiration (or invalidation) of all valid claims in licensed patent rights that cover such product in such country, (2) the end of the calendar quarter in which generic competition (as defined in the Enteris License Agreement) occurs for such product in such country and (3) ten years from the first commercial sale of such product.

Either party may terminate the Enteris License Agreement upon written notice if the other party has failed to remedy a material breach within 60 days (or 30 days in the case of a material breach of a payment obligation). Enteris may terminate the Enteris License Agreement upon 30 days’ written notice to us if we or any of our affiliates formally challenge the validity of any licensed patent rights or assists a third party in doing so. We may terminate the Enteris License Agreement for any reason or no reason (a) prior to receipt of first regulatory approval for a licensed product in the United States for any indication upon 30 days’ prior written notice to Enteris or (b) on or after receipt of first regulatory approval for a licensed product in the United States for any indication upon 60 days’ prior written notice to Enteris.

In August 2019, in connection with the Enteris License Agreement, we entered into the Enteris Purchase Agreement with Enteris and its affiliate, EBP Holdco LLC, collectively referred to as Purchaser, pursuant to which we issued and sold to Purchaser 170,793 shares of our common stock in a private placement. Such shares were issued in satisfaction of the $4.0 million portion of the upfront fee payable in shares of our common stock pursuant to the Enteris License Agreement and for no additional consideration, based on a purchase price of $23.42 per share, which was equal to the 30-day volume weighted average price of our common stock on August 20, 2019. Pursuant to the Enteris Purchase Agreement, we effected the registration and sale of the shares issued and sold to Purchaser thereunder in accordance with the applicable requirements of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, which included the filing of a registration statement with the SEC on September 9, 2019. In addition, the Purchase Agreement includes customary representations, warranties and covenants by us.

Patheon UK Limited (Patheon)

In July 2019, we entered into a Master Manufacturing Services Agreement, or MSA, with Patheon UK Limited, or Patheon. The MSA governs the general terms under which Patheon, or one of its affiliates, will provide non-exclusive manufacturing services to us for the drug products specified by us from time to time. Pursuant to the MSA, we have agreed to order from Patheon at least a certain percentage of our commercial requirements for a product under a related Product Agreement. Each Product Agreement that we may enter into from time to time will be governed by the terms of the MSA, unless expressly modified in such Product Agreement.

The MSA has an initial term ending December 31, 2023, and will automatically renew after the initial term for successive terms of two years each if there is a Product Agreement in effect, unless either party gives notice of its intention to terminate the MSA at least 18 months prior to the end of the then current term.

Either party may terminate the MSA or a Product Agreement upon written notice if the other party (1) has failed to remedy a material breach within a specified time or (2) is declared insolvent or bankrupt, voluntarily files a petition of bankruptcy or assigns such agreement for the benefit of creditors. We may terminate a Product Agreement (a) upon 90 days’ prior written notice if any governmental agency takes any action that prevents us from selling the relevant product in the relevant territory, (b) upon six months’ prior written notice if we do not intend to order manufacturing services due to a product’s discontinuance in the market, or (c) upon 90 days’ prior written notice if we determine that the manufacture or supply of a product likely infringes third-party rights. Patheon may terminate the MSA or a Product Agreement (i) upon six months’ prior written notice if we assign such agreement to an assignee that is unacceptable to Patheon for certain reasons, or (ii) upon 30 days’ prior written notice if, after the first year of commercial sales, we forecast zero volume for 12 months.

The MSA contains, among other provisions, customary representations and warranties by the parties, a grant to Patheon of certain limited license rights to our intellectual property in connection with Patheon’s performance of the

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services under the MSA, certain indemnification rights in favor of both parties, limitations of liability and customary confidentiality provisions.

Also in July 2019, we entered into two related Product Agreements under the MSA, one with each of Patheon and Patheon Manufacturing Services LLC, or Patheon Greenville, to govern the terms and conditions of the manufacture of commercial supplies of difelikefalin injection, our lead product candidate. Pursuant to the Product Agreements, Patheon and Patheon Greenville will manufacture commercial supplies of difelikefalin injection at the Monza, Italy and Greenville, North Carolina manufacturing sites, respectively, from API supplied by us. Patheon and Patheon Greenville will be responsible for supplying the other required raw materials and packaging components, and will also provide supportive manufacturing services such as quality control testing for raw materials, packaging components and finished product.

Sales and Marketing

In executing our strategy, our goal is to commercialize KORSUVA injection in the dialysis setting by partnering with out-licensing agreements, and to maintain significant control over the development process and commercial execution for the oral formulation of difelikefalin, if approved.

We have executed out-licensing agreements on KORSUVA injection in the dialysis setting in the United States and the rest of the world. Per the terms of the associated licensing agreement, Vifor Pharma will commercialize KORSUVA injection, and we will not be incurring costs for commercializing in the United States as we will be relying on sales and marketing infrastructure support from our partner.

For Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin), we plan to develop and commercialize our drug candidate in pruritus indications, such as CKD-aP, AD, and potentially others, on our own in the United States, while exploring partnerships for development and commercialization in geographical territories outside the United States.

In 2015, we commissioned a qualitative market research study of nephrologists to evaluate the commercial potential of KORSUVA injection for CKD-aP. The study suggests KORSUVA injection would be well received by nephrologists, once approved. The key findings from the study were:

As a result, we believe that KORSUVA injection is well positioned to address the unmet needs for hemodialysis patients suffering from CKD-aP.

Intellectual Property

We strive to protect the proprietary technologies that we believe are important to our business, including seeking and maintaining patent protection intended to cover the composition of matter of our product candidates, their methods of use, related technology and other inventions that are important to our business. As more fully described below, patent applications have been filed covering compositions and novel formulations of these compositions, as well as methods of using difelikefalin. We own the patent portfolio of eighteen issued U.S. patents covering KOR agonists, sixteen of which cover composition of matter of difelikefalin and its uses; six of these include composition of matter claims directed to difelikefalin, and ten patents include claims to its uses. All of these U.S. patents covering difelikefalin and its uses are expected to expire no earlier than November 12, 2027. Additionally, three U.S. patents have been granted with claims to difelikefalin-like dimer compounds and their uses. We have filed patent applications in the U.S. and internationally

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claiming novel oral formulations of difelikefalin. One U.S. patent with claims to oral formulations of difelikefalin has been granted and is expected to expire no earlier than September 13, 2039. Related U.S. and foreign applications, if granted, would also be expected to expire no earlier than September 13, 2039. We have also filed U.S. and foreign patent applications for additional formulations of difelikefalin, which if granted, would be expected to expire no earlier than March 18, 2040. We also rely on trade secrets and careful monitoring of our proprietary information to protect aspects of our business that are not amenable to, or that we do not consider appropriate for, patent protection.

Our success will depend significantly on our ability to obtain and maintain patent and other proprietary protection for commercially important technology, inventions and know-how related to our business, defend and enforce our patents, maintain our licenses to use intellectual property owned by third parties, preserve the confidentiality of our trade secrets and operate without infringing valid and enforceable patents and other proprietary rights of third parties. We also rely on know-how, and continuing technological innovation to develop, strengthen, and maintain our proprietary position in the field of peripheral analgesia and treatment of pruritus.

A third party may hold intellectual property, including patent rights, which are important or necessary to the development of our products. It may be necessary for us to use the patented or proprietary technology of third parties to commercialize our products, in which case we would be required to obtain a license from these third parties on commercially reasonable terms, or our business could be harmed, possibly materially. If we were not able to obtain a license or were not able to obtain a license on commercially reasonable terms, our business could be harmed, possibly materially.

We plan to continue to expand our intellectual property estate by filing patent applications directed to novel peripheral analgesics, novel formulations and novel uses of our proprietary compounds. We anticipate seeking patent protection in the United States and internationally for the chemistries and processes for manufacturing these compounds and novel formulations and uses of these compounds in a variety of therapies.

The patent positions of biopharmaceutical companies like us are generally uncertain and involve complex legal, scientific and factual questions. In addition, the coverage claimed in a patent application can be significantly reduced before the patent is issued, and the patent’s scope can be modified after issuance by later judicial decisions. Consequently, we do not know whether any of our product candidates will be adequately protectable or remain protected by enforceable patents. We cannot predict whether the patent applications we are currently pursuing will issue as patents in any particular jurisdiction or whether the claims of any issued patents will provide sufficient proprietary protection from competitors. Any patents that we hold may be challenged, circumvented or invalidated by third parties.

Because patent applications in the United States and certain other jurisdictions are maintained in secrecy for up to 18 months, and since publication of discoveries in the scientific or patent literature often lags behind actual discoveries, we cannot be certain of our entitlement to the inventions covered by pending patent applications. Moreover, although unlikely, we may have to participate in interference proceedings declared by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, or USPTO, to determine priority of invention, or in post-grant challenge proceedings in the USPTO, or a foreign patent office such as oppositions, inter-partes review, post grant review, or a derivation proceeding, that challenge our entitlement to an invention or the patentability of one or more claims in our patent applications or issued patents. Such proceedings could result in substantial cost, even if the eventual outcome is favorable to us.

The patent portfolios for our most advanced programs are summarized below.

Difelikefalin

Our synthetic peptide amide kappa opioid agonist patent portfolio is wholly owned by us. The portfolio includes eighteen issued U.S. patents (U.S. Patent Nos. 7,402,564; 7,713,937; 7,727,963; 7,842,662; 8,217,007; 8,236,766; 8,486,894; 8,536,131; 8,906,859; 8,951,970; 9,321,810; 9,334,305; 9,359,399; 10,017,536; 10,138,270; 10,793,596; 10,913,769 and 11,033,629) with claims to compositions of a wide range of synthetic peptide amide kappa opioid agonists, including difelikefalin and related molecules, as well as methods of using these compounds. These patents claiming difelikefalin compositions are due to expire November 12, 2027.

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We have listed twelve of the patents claiming difelikefalin acetate and/or its uses in the Orange Book, a listing of patents relating to approved drug products maintained by the FDA. Difelikefalin acetate has been awarded a five-year exclusivity from the approval date, i.e. until August 23, 2026, prohibiting the FDA from accepting an application for approval of a difelikefalin product from a generic manufacturer until after the exclusivity period expires. In addition, we have also submitted an application for a patent term extension of one of our difelikefalin U.S. patents, which if granted for the full five-year extension requested, would extend the patent term to November 12, 2032.

Foreign applications relating to difelikefalin and related molecules, as well as methods of using these compounds, were filed in more than 40 foreign countries. National patents have been granted in 27 European countries, as well as in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Hong Kong, India, Israel, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Russian Federation, Singapore, South Africa and South Korea. These granted foreign patents with claims to difelikefalin are due expire no earlier than November 12, 2027.

Other Cara Patents and Patent Applications

We also own several other U.S. patents including U.S. Patent Nos. 7,741,350; 7,960,376; 7,960,377; and 8,211,926 with claims to other cannabinoid compounds and U.S. Patent No. 8,217,000 with claims to regulation of prolactin in mammals including humans.

The term of individual patents depends upon the legal term of the patents in the countries in which they are obtained. In most countries in which we file, the patent term is 20 years from the earliest date of filing a PCT application or a non-provisional patent application. The term of a patent in the United States can be adjusted and extended due to the failure of the USPTO following certain statutory and regulation deadlines for progressing prosecution and issuing a patent.

In the United States, the patent term of a patent that covers an FDA-approved drug may also be eligible for patent term extension, which permits patent term restoration as compensation for a portion of the patent term lost during the FDA regulatory review process. The Hatch-Waxman Act permits a patent term extension of up to five years beyond the expiration of the patent. The length of the patent term extension is related to the length of time the drug is under regulatory review. Patent extension cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the date of product approval and only one patent applicable to an approved drug may be extended. Similar provisions are available in Europe and other non-United States jurisdictions to extend the term of a patent that covers an approved drug. In the future, if and when our pharmaceutical products receive FDA approval, we expect to apply for patent term extensions on patents covering those products. Although we intend to seek patent term extensions to any of our issued patents in any jurisdiction where these are available there is no guarantee that the applicable authorities, including the FDA in the United States, will agree with our assessment of whether such extensions should be granted, and even if granted, the length of such extensions.

We also rely on trade secret protection for our confidential and proprietary information. Although we take steps to protect our proprietary information and trade secrets, including through contractual means with our employees and consultants, third parties may independently develop substantially equivalent proprietary information and techniques or otherwise gain access to our trade secrets or disclose our technology. Thus, we may not be able to meaningfully protect our trade secrets. It is our policy to require our employees, consultants, outside scientific collaborators, sponsored researchers and other advisors to execute confidentiality agreements upon the commencement of employment or consulting relationships with us. These agreements provide that all confidential information concerning our business or financial affairs developed or made known to the individual during the course of the individual’s relationship with us is to be kept confidential and not disclosed to third parties except in specific circumstances. In the case of employees, the agreements provide that all inventions conceived by the individual, and which are related to our current or planned business or research and development, or R&D, or made during normal working hours, on our premises or using our equipment or proprietary information, are our exclusive property.

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Competition

The biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries are characterized by rapidly advancing technologies, intense competition and a strong emphasis on proprietary products. While we believe that our technology, knowledge, experience and scientific resources provide us with competitive advantages, we face potential competition from many different sources, including large pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, specialty pharmaceutical and generic drug companies, and medical technology companies. Any product candidates that we successfully develop and commercialize will compete with existing therapies and new therapies that may become available in the future.

There are a large number of companies developing or marketing therapies for the indications that we are pursuing. Many of our competitors, including many of the organizations named below, have substantially greater financial, technical and human resources than we do and significantly greater experience in the development of product candidates, obtaining FDA and other regulatory approvals of products and the commercialization of those products. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of competitors. Small or early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. We also compete with these companies in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific personnel and establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials.

We believe the key competitive factors that will affect the development and commercial success of our product candidates, if approved for marketing, are likely to be their safety, efficacy and tolerability profile, reliability, convenience of dosing, price and reimbursement from government and third-party payers. Our commercial opportunity could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient or are less expensive than any products that we may develop. Our competitors also may obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market. In addition, our ability to compete may be affected in many cases by insurers or other third-party payers seeking to encourage the use of generic products. Generic products that broadly address these indications are currently on the market for the indications that we are pursuing, and additional products are expected to become available on a generic basis over the coming years. If our product candidates achieve marketing approval, we expect that they will be priced at a significant premium over competitive generic products.

If our product candidates are approved for the indications for which we are currently undertaking clinical trials, they will compete with the therapies and currently marketed drugs discussed below:

KORSUVA Injection - Uremic Pruritus or CKD-aP. KORSUVA injection was approved on August 23, 2021 for the management of CKD-aP in adult hemodialysis patients. Currently, there are no approved products for management of CKD-aP in the United States. However, there are many products that are used to help manage CKD-aP. The most common of these agents are anti-itch creams and emollients as well as oral or injectable antihistamines. All of these products have limited degrees of efficacy and are available generically. Additionally, patients may try several other agents such as gabapentin or naltrexone, generally with limited success or therapies such as UVB light therapy with limited availability.

Because of the substantial unmet need for products that are safe and effective in CKD-aP, there are other companies that either were in the past or are currently involved in the discovery, development, and/or marketing of such products for CKD-aP or related conditions. Some of such product candidates or products include nemolizumab from Galderma, nalbuphine from Trevi Therapeutics and Remitch® or nalfurafine from Toray Industries.

Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) – Chronic Kidney Disease-Associated Pruritus (CKD-aP) and Chronic Liver Disease-Associated Pruritus (CLD-aP). We are developing Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the management of moderate-to-severe chronic pruritus conditions like CKD-aP or CLD-aP. There are currently no products approved in the United States for CKD-aP or CLD-aP. The market for the management of moderate-to-severe chronic pruritus is highly fragmented and includes numerous generic products, including oral formulations of corticosteroids and antihistamines. The most common corticosteroids and antihistamines are available generically. Because of the size and untapped

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potential of the chronic pruritus market and the substantial unmet need for products that are safe and effective, there are other companies involved in the discovery, development, and/or marketing of new products for pruritus.

Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) – Atopic Dermatitis (AD)-Associated Pruritus. We are developing Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the management of moderate-to-severe chronic pruritus associated with AD. There are currently several products specifically approved in the United States to treat AD and the itching associated with it: Dupixent (dupilumab), Eucrisa (crisaborole), Opzelura (ruxolitinib), Adbry (tralokinumab-ldrm), Rinvoq (upadacitinib) and Cibinqo (abrocitinib). Additionally, the market for the management of mild-to-moderate and moderate-to-severe AD includes numerous generic products, including topical and oral formulations of corticosteroids and antihistamines. Because of the size and untapped potential of the AD market, there are other companies involved in the discovery, development, and/or marketing of new products for pruritus. Multiple companies are studying IL-13 inhibitors (e.g. lebrikizumab), IL-31 inhibitors (e.g. nemolizumab), JAK inhibitors (e.g. baricitinib) and OX40 inhibitors for treatment of AD.

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Manufacturing

We do not have any manufacturing facilities. We currently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties for the manufacture of our product candidates for preclinical and clinical testing, as well as for commercial manufacture for KORSUVA injection and if our product candidates receive marketing approval. We have negotiated long-term commitments with at least one primary supplier for our primary manufacturing and distribution functions. We have entered into a commercial manufacturing agreement with Patheon for KORSUVA injection, a commercial supply agreement with PPL to produce API, and a commercial packaging agreement with PCI Pharma Services.

All of our product candidates are either small peptides or organic small molecules and are manufactured in reliable and reproducible synthetic processes from readily available starting materials. The chemistry is amenable to scale up and does not require any special equipment or technology in the manufacturing process. We expect to continue to develop product candidates that can be produced cost-effectively at contract manufacturing facilities.

Government Regulation and Product Approval

Government authorities in the United States, at the federal, state and local level, and in other countries extensively regulate, among other things, the research, development, testing, manufacture, packaging, storage, recordkeeping, labeling, advertising, promotion, distribution, marketing, import and export of pharmaceutical products such as KORSUVA injection. The processes for obtaining regulatory approvals in the United States and in foreign countries, along with subsequent compliance with applicable statutes and regulations, require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources.

FDA Regulation

In the United States, the FDA regulates drugs under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or FDCA, and its implementing regulations. The process of obtaining regulatory approvals and the subsequent compliance with appropriate federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations requires the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources. Failure to comply with the applicable United States requirements at any time during the product development process, approval process or after approval, may subject an applicant to a variety of administrative or judicial sanctions, such as the FDA’s refusal to approve pending NDAs, withdrawal of an approval, imposition of a clinical hold, issuance of warning or untitled letters, product recalls, product seizures, total or partial suspension of production or distribution, injunctions, fines, refusals of government contracts, restitution, disgorgement or civil or criminal penalties.

The process required by the FDA before a drug may be marketed in the United States generally involves the following:

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Preclinical Studies. Preclinical studies include laboratory evaluation of drug substance chemistry, toxicity and drug product formulation, as well as animal studies to assess potential safety and efficacy. An IND sponsor must submit the results of the preclinical tests, together with manufacturing information, analytical data and any available clinical data or literature, among other things, to the FDA as part of an IND. Manufacture of drug substance, drug product and the labeling and distribution of clinical supplies must all comply with cGMP standards. Some preclinical testing may continue even after the IND is submitted. An IND automatically becomes effective 30 days after receipt by the FDA, unless before that time the FDA raises concerns or questions related to one or more proposed clinical trials and places the trial on a clinical hold. In such a case, the IND sponsor and the FDA must resolve any outstanding concerns before the clinical trial can begin. As a result, submission of an IND may not result in the FDA allowing clinical trials to commence.

Clinical Trials. Clinical trials involve the administration of the investigational new drug to human subjects under the supervision of qualified investigators in accordance with cGCP requirements, which include the requirement that all research subjects provide their informed consent in writing for their participation in any clinical trial. Clinical trials are conducted under protocols detailing, among other things, the objectives of the trial, the parameters to be used in monitoring safety and the effectiveness criteria to be evaluated. A protocol for each clinical trial and any subsequent protocol amendments must be submitted to the FDA as part of the IND. In addition, an IRB at each institution participating in the clinical trial must review and approve the plan for any clinical trial before it commences at that institution, and the IRB must continue to oversee the clinical trial while it is being conducted. Information about certain clinical trials must be submitted within specific timeframes to the National Institutes of Health, or NIH, for public dissemination on their ClinicalTrials.gov website.

Human clinical trials are typically conducted in three sequential phases, which may overlap or be combined. In Phase 1, the drug is initially introduced into healthy human subjects or patients with the target disease or condition and tested for safety, dosage tolerance, absorption, metabolism, distribution, excretion and, if possible, to gain an initial indication of its effectiveness. In Phase 2, the drug typically is administered to a limited patient population to identify possible adverse effects and safety risks, to preliminarily evaluate the efficacy of the product for specific targeted diseases and to determine dosage tolerance and optimal dosage. In Phase 3, the drug is administered to an expanded patient population, generally at geographically dispersed clinical trial sites, in well-controlled clinical trials to generate enough data to statistically evaluate the efficacy and safety of the product for approval, to establish the overall risk-benefit profile of the product and to provide adequate information for the labeling of the product.

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Progress reports detailing the results of the clinical trials must be submitted at least annually to the FDA and more frequently if serious adverse events occur. Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical trials may not be completed successfully within any specified period, or at all. Furthermore, the FDA or the sponsor may suspend or terminate a clinical trial at any time on various grounds, including a finding that the research subjects are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk. Similarly, an IRB can suspend or terminate approval of a clinical trial at its institution if the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with the IRB’s requirements or if the drug has been associated with unexpected serious harm to patients.

Marketing Approval. Assuming successful completion of the required clinical testing, the results of the preclinical and clinical studies, together with detailed information relating to the product’s chemistry, manufacture, controls and proposed labeling, among other things, are submitted to the FDA as part of an NDA requesting approval to market the product for one or more indications. In most cases, the submission of an NDA is subject to a substantial application user fee. Under the Prescription Drug User Fee Act, or PDUFA, guidelines that are currently in effect, the FDA has agreed to certain performance goals regarding the timing of its review of an application.

In addition, under the Pediatric Research Equity Act, or PREA, an NDA or supplement to an NDA must contain data that are adequate to assess the safety and effectiveness of the drug for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations, and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the product is safe and effective. The FDA may, on its own initiative or at the request of the applicant, grant deferrals for submission of some or all pediatric data until after approval of the product for use in adults, or full or partial waivers from the pediatric data requirements.

The FDA also may require submission of a risk evaluation and mitigation strategy, or REMS, to mitigate any identified or suspected serious risks and ensure safe use of the drug. The REMS plan could include medication guides, physician communication plans, assessment plans, and elements to assure safe use, such as restricted distribution methods, patient registries or other risk minimization tools.

The FDA conducts a preliminary review of all NDAs within the first 60 days after submission, before accepting them for filing, to determine whether they are sufficiently complete to permit substantive review. The FDA may request additional information rather than accept an NDA for filing. In this event, the application must be resubmitted with the additional information. The resubmitted application is also subject to review before the FDA accepts it for filing. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth substantive review. The FDA reviews an NDA to determine, among other things, whether the drug is safe and effective and whether the facility in which it is manufactured, processed, packaged or held meets standards designed to assure the product’s continued safety, quality and purity.

The FDA may refer an application for a novel drug to an external advisory committee. An advisory committee is a panel of independent experts, including clinicians and other scientific experts, that reviews, evaluates and provides a recommendation as to whether the application should be approved and under what conditions. The FDA is not bound by the recommendations of an advisory committee, but it considers such recommendations carefully when making decisions.

Before approving an NDA, the FDA typically will inspect the facility or facilities where the product is manufactured, referred to as a Pre-Approval Inspection. The FDA will not approve an application unless it determines that the manufacturing processes and facilities are in compliance with cGMP requirements and adequate to assure consistent production of the product within required specifications. Additionally, before approving an NDA, the FDA will typically inspect one or more clinical trial sites to assure compliance with cGCP.

The testing and approval process for an NDA requires substantial time, effort and financial resources, and each may take several years to complete. Data obtained from preclinical and clinical testing are not always conclusive and may be susceptible to varying interpretations, which could delay, limit or prevent regulatory approval. The FDA may not grant approval of an NDA on a timely basis, or at all.

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After evaluating the NDA and all related information, including the advisory committee recommendation, if any, and inspection reports regarding the manufacturing facilities and clinical trial sites, the FDA may issue an approval letter, or, in some cases, a complete response letter. A complete response letter generally contains a statement of specific conditions that must be met in order to secure final approval of the NDA and may require additional clinical or preclinical testing in order for FDA to reconsider the application. Even with submission of this additional information, the FDA ultimately may decide that the application does not satisfy the regulatory criteria for approval. If and when those conditions have been met to the FDA’s satisfaction, the FDA may issue an approval letter. An approval letter authorizes commercial marketing of the drug with specific prescribing information for specific indications.

Even if the FDA approves a product, it may limit the approved indications for use of the product, require that contraindications, warnings or precautions be included in the product labeling, including a boxed warning, require that post-approval studies, including Phase 4 clinical trials, be conducted to further assess a drug’s safety after approval, require testing and surveillance programs to monitor the product after commercialization, or impose other conditions, including distribution restrictions or other risk management mechanisms under a REMS which can materially affect the potential market and profitability of the product. The FDA may prevent or limit further marketing of a product based on the results of post-marketing studies or surveillance programs. After approval, some types of changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications, manufacturing changes, and additional labeling claims, are subject to further testing requirements and FDA review and approval.

Breakthrough Therapy Designation. The FDA may expedite the review of a product candidate designated as a breakthrough therapy, which is intended, alone or in combination with one or more other drugs, to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that the drug may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints, such as substantial treatment effects observed early in clinical development. A sponsor may request the FDA to designate a drug as a breakthrough therapy at the time of, or any time after, the submission of an IND application for the drug. If the FDA designates a drug as a breakthrough therapy, it must take actions appropriate to expedite the development and review of the application, which may include holding meetings with the sponsor and the review team throughout the development of the drug; providing timely advice to, and interactive communication with, the sponsor regarding the development of the drug to ensure that the development program to gather the nonclinical and clinical data necessary for approval is as efficient as practicable; involving senior managers and experienced review staff, as appropriate, in a collaborative, cross-disciplinary review; assigning a cross-disciplinary project lead for the FDA review team to facilitate an efficient review of the development program and to serve as a scientific liaison between the review team and the sponsor; and taking steps to ensure that the design of the clinical trials is as efficient as practicable, when scientifically appropriate, such as by minimizing the number of patients exposed to a potentially less efficacious treatment. The FDA may rescind a Breakthrough Therapy designation in the future if further clinical development later shows that the criteria for designation are no longer met. Breakthrough Therapy designation does not change the standards for approval, but may expedite the development or review process.

Post-Approval Requirements. Drugs manufactured or distributed pursuant to FDA approvals are subject to pervasive and continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, requirements relating to recordkeeping, periodic reporting, product sampling and distribution, advertising and promotion, reporting of adverse experiences with the product, and compliance with any post-approval requirements imposed as a condition of approval, such as Phase 4 clinical trials and surveillance to assess safety and effectiveness after commercialization. After approval, most changes to the approved product, such as adding new indications or other labeling claims are subject to prior FDA review and approval. There also are continuing, annual program user fee requirements for any marketed products, as well as new application fees for supplemental applications with clinical data. In addition, drug manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacture and distribution of approved drugs are required to register their establishments with the FDA and state agencies and are subject to periodic announced and unannounced inspections by the FDA and these state agencies for compliance with cGMP requirements. Changes to the manufacturing process are strictly regulated and often require prior FDA approval before being implemented. FDA regulations also require investigation and correction of any deviations from cGMP and impose reporting and documentation requirements upon the sponsor and any third-party manufacturers that the sponsor may decide to use. Accordingly, manufacturers must continue to expend time, money and effort in the area of production and quality control to maintain cGMP compliance.

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Once an approval is granted, the FDA may withdraw the approval if compliance with regulatory requirements and standards is not maintained or if problems occur after the product reaches the market.

Later discovery of previously unknown problems with a product, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or with manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may result in mandatory revisions to the approved labeling to add new safety information; imposition of post-market studies or clinical trials to assess new safety risks; or imposition of distribution or other restrictions under a REMS program. Other potential consequences include, among other things:

The FDA strictly regulates marketing, labeling, advertising and promotion of products that are placed on the market. Although physicians, in the practice of medicine, may prescribe approved drugs for unapproved indications, pharmaceutical companies are required to promote their drug products only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved label. The FDA and other agencies actively enforce the laws and regulations prohibiting the promotion of off-label uses, and a company that is found to have improperly promoted off-label uses may be subject to significant liability. However, physicians may, in their independent medical judgment, prescribe legally available products for off-label uses. The FDA does not regulate the behavior of physicians in their choice of treatments but the FDA does restrict manufacturer’s communications on the subject of off-label use of their products.

In addition, the distribution of prescription pharmaceutical products is subject to the Prescription Drug Marketing Act, or PDMA, which regulates the distribution of drugs and drug samples at the federal level, and sets minimum standards for the registration and regulation of drug distributors by the states. Both the PDMA and state laws limit the distribution of prescription pharmaceutical product samples and impose requirements to ensure accountability in distribution.

Fraud and Abuse, Data Privacy and Security and Transparency Laws and Regulations

In addition to FDA restrictions on marketing of pharmaceutical products, federal and state health care regulatory laws restrict business practices in the biopharmaceutical industry. These laws include, among other things, anti-kickback and false claims laws and regulations, physician payment transparency laws and regulations, as well as data privacy and security laws and regulations.

The federal Anti-Kickback Statute prohibits, among other things, any person or entity, from knowingly and willfully offering, paying, soliciting or receiving any remuneration, directly or indirectly, overtly or covertly, in cash or in kind, to induce or in return for purchasing, leasing, ordering, or arranging for or recommending the purchase, lease, or order of any item or service reimbursable under Medicare, Medicaid or other federal healthcare programs. The term “remuneration” has been interpreted broadly to include anything of value. The Anti-Kickback Statute has been interpreted to apply to arrangements between pharmaceutical manufacturers on one hand and prescribers, purchasers, and formulary managers on the other. There are a number of statutory exceptions and regulatory safe harbors protecting some common activities from prosecution. Practices that involve remuneration that may be alleged to be intended to induce prescribing, purchases, or recommendations may be subject to scrutiny if they do not qualify for an exception or

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safe harbor. Failure to meet all of the requirements of a particular applicable statutory exception or regulatory safe harbor does not make the conduct per se illegal under the Anti-Kickback Statute. Instead, the legality of the arrangement will be evaluated on a case-by-case basis based on a cumulative review of all of its facts and circumstances.

Additionally, the intent standard under the federal Anti-Kickback Statute was amended by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, as amended by the Health Care Education Reconciliation Act (collectively, the “Health Care Reform Law”), to a stricter standard such that a person or entity no longer needs to have actual knowledge of the statute or specific intent to violate it in order to have committed a violation. In addition, the Health Care Reform Law provided that the government may assert that a claim including items or services resulting from a violation of the federal Anti-Kickback Statute constitutes a false or fraudulent claim for purposes of the federal civil False Claims Act.

Federal false claims laws, including the federal civil False Claims Act prohibit, among other things, any person or entity from knowingly presenting, or causing to be presented, a false or fraudulent claim for payment to, or approval by, the federal government or knowingly making, using, or causing to be made or used a false record or statement material to a false or fraudulent claim to the federal government. A claim includes “any request or demand” for money or property presented to the U.S. government. The federal civil False Claims Act has been used to assert liability on the basis of kickbacks and other improper referrals, improperly reported government pricing metrics such as Best Price or Average Manufacturer Price, improper use of Medicare provider or supplier numbers when detailing a provider of services, improper promotion of off-label uses not expressly approved by FDA in a drug’s label, and allegations as to misrepresentations with respect to the services rendered. Additionally, the civil monetary penalties statute, which, among other things, imposes fines against any person or entity who is determined to have presented, or caused to be presented, claims to a federal healthcare program that the person knows, or should know, is for an item or service that was not provided as claimed or is false or fraudulent. The federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996, or HIPAA, created additional federal criminal statutes that prohibit knowingly and willfully executing, or attempting to execute, a scheme to defraud or to obtain, by means of false or fraudulent pretenses, representations, or promises, any of the money or property owned by, or under the custody or control of, any healthcare benefit program, including private third-party payers and knowingly and willfully falsifying, concealing or covering up by trick, scheme or device a material fact or making any materially false, fictitious or fraudulent statement in connection with the delivery of or payment for healthcare benefits, items or services relating to healthcare matters. Also, many states have similar fraud and abuse statutes or regulations that apply to items and services reimbursed under Medicaid and other state programs, or, in several states, apply regardless of the payer.

In addition, we may be subject to data privacy and security regulation by both the federal government and the states in which we conduct our business. HIPAA, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act, or HITECH, and their respective implementing regulations, including the Final HIPAA Omnibus Rule published on January 25, 2013, imposes specified requirements on certain types of individuals and entities subject to the law, known as covered entities, such as certain healthcare providers, health plans, and healthcare clearinghouses, as well as their business associates that process individually identifiable health information on their behalf, relating to the privacy, security and transmission of individually identifiable health information as well as their covered subcontractors. Among other things, HITECH makes security standards and certain privacy standards directly applicable to the business associates of covered entities that perform services for them that involve the creation, use, maintenance or disclosure of, individually identifiable health information. HITECH also created four new tiers of civil monetary penalties, amended HIPAA to make civil and criminal penalties directly applicable to business associates, and gave state attorneys general new authority to file civil actions for damages or injunctions in federal courts to enforce the federal HIPAA laws and seek attorney’s fees and costs associated with pursuing federal civil actions. In addition, state laws may govern the privacy and security of health information in certain circumstances, many of which differ from each other in significant ways and may not have the same effect, thus complicating compliance efforts.

Additionally, federal transparency laws, including the federal Physician Payments Sunshine Act created under Section 6002 of the Health Care Reform Law and its implementing regulations, require that manufacturers of drugs, devices, biologics and medical supplies for which payment is available under Medicare, Medicaid or the Children’s Health Insurance Program (with certain exceptions) report annually to the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, or CMS, information related to payments or other transfers of value made or distributed to physicians (defined to include doctors of medicine, dentists, optometrists, podiatrists and chiropractors), other healthcare professionals (such as

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physician assistants and nurse practitioners), and teaching hospitals, or to entities or individuals at their request or designation. Additionally, applicable manufacturers and applicable group purchasing organizations are required to report annually to CMS certain ownership and investment interests held by physicians (as defined above) and their immediate family members.

There are also an increasing number of analogous state laws that require manufacturers to file reports with states on pricing and marketing information, such as tracking and reporting of gifts, compensations, other remuneration and items of value provided to healthcare professionals and healthcare entities. For example, several states have enacted legislation requiring pharmaceutical companies to, among other things, establish and implement commercial compliance programs, file periodic reports with the state, make periodic public disclosures on sales, marketing, pricing, clinical trials and other activities and/or register their sales representatives. Certain state laws also regulate manufacturers’ use of prescriber-identifiable data. These laws may affect our sales, marketing and other promotional activities by imposing administrative and compliance burdens. In addition, given the lack of clarity with respect to these laws and their implementation, our reporting actions could be subject to the penalty provisions of the pertinent state and federal authorities.

If our operations are found to be in violation of any of the health regulatory laws described above or any other laws that apply to us, we may be subject to penalties, including significant criminal, civil and administrative penalties, damages, fines, imprisonment, exclusion from participation in government healthcare programs, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, additional reporting requirements and/or oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations, any of which could adversely affect our ability to operate our business and our results of operations. To the extent that any of our products are sold in a foreign country, we may be subject to similar foreign laws and regulations, which may include, for instance, applicable post-marketing requirements, including safety surveillance, anti-fraud and abuse laws, and implementation of corporate compliance programs and reporting of payments or transfers of value to healthcare professionals.

Coverage and Reimbursement Generally

The commercial success of KORSUVA injection and our ability to commercialize any approved product candidates successfully will depend in part on the extent to which governmental payer programs at the federal and state levels, including Medicare and Medicaid, private health insurers and other third-party payers provide coverage for and establish adequate reimbursement levels. In the United States, private health insurers and other third-party payers often provide reimbursement for products and services based on the level at which the government provides reimbursement through the Medicare or Medicaid programs for such products and services.

Patients who are prescribed treatments for their conditions and providers performing the prescribed services generally rely on third-party payers to reimburse all or part of the associated healthcare costs. In addition, many U.S. hospitals receive a fixed reimbursement amount per procedure for certain surgeries and other treatment therapies they perform, or a predetermined rate for all hospital inpatient care provided as payment in full. Because this amount may not be based on the actual expenses the hospital incurs, hospitals may choose to use therapies which are less expensive when compared to our product candidates. Sales of KORSUVA injection and our product candidates to the extent approved will therefore depend substantially, both domestically and abroad, on the extent to which the costs of our products will be paid by health maintenance, managed care, pharmacy benefit and similar healthcare management organizations, or reimbursed by government health administration authorities, such as Medicare and Medicaid, private health insurers and other third-party payers. Further, assuming coverage is approved, the resulting reimbursement payment rates might not be adequate. KORSUVA injection is expected to be designated as a component of the government’s bundled reimbursement for ESRD treatment.

Our U.S. commercial partner, Vifor Pharma Group, submitted the payment reimbursement application for TDAPA and HCPCS to CMS in September 2021. In December 2021, CMS granted TDAPA to KORSUVA injection in the anti-pruritic functional category. TDAPA will apply to KORSUVA injection beginning April 1, 2022 for two years.

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Third-party payers are increasingly imposing additional requirements and restrictions on coverage and limiting reimbursement levels for medical products, including pharmaceuticals. For example, federal and state governments reimburse covered prescription drugs at varying rates generally below average wholesale price. These restrictions and limitations influence the purchase of healthcare services and products. Third-party payers may limit coverage to specific drug products on an approved list, or formulary, which might not include all of the FDA-approved drug products for a particular indication. Additionally, third-party payers are increasingly challenging the price and examining the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of medical products and services, in addition to their safety and efficacy. Therefore, we may need to conduct expensive pharmacoeconomic studies in order to demonstrate the medical necessity and cost-effectiveness of our products, in addition to the costs required to obtain the FDA approvals. KORSUVA injection and any of our product candidates, to the extent they receive approval, may not be considered medically necessary or cost-effective. Moreover, a payer’s decision to provide coverage for a drug product does not imply that an adequate reimbursement rate will be approved, and one payer’s determination to provide coverage for a product does not assure that other payers will also provide coverage. Adequate third-party reimbursement may not be available to enable us to maintain price levels sufficient to realize an appropriate return on our investment in drug development. Legislative proposals to reform healthcare or reduce costs under government insurance programs may result in lower reimbursement for our products and product candidates or exclusion of our products and product candidates from coverage. The cost containment measures that healthcare payers and providers are instituting and any healthcare reform could significantly reduce our revenues from the sale of KORSUVA injection and any approved product candidates.

Healthcare Regulatory Developments

In the United States and some foreign jurisdictions, the legislative landscape with respect to healthcare continues to evolve. There have been a number of legislative and regulatory changes to the healthcare system that could affect our ability to sell our products profitably. Among policy makers and payers in the United States and elsewhere, there is significant interest in promoting changes in healthcare systems with the stated goals of containing healthcare costs, improving quality and expanding access. In the United States, the pharmaceutical industry has been a particular focus of these efforts and has been significantly affected by major legislative initiatives.

For example, the Health Care Reform Law was passed in March 2010 and includes provisions that have substantially changed healthcare financing by both governmental and private insurers. Among other provisions that could have an impact on our business, the Health Care Reform Law revised the methodology by which rebates owed by manufacturers to the state and federal government for covered outpatient drugs under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program are calculated, increased the minimum Medicaid rebates owed by most manufacturers under the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program, extended the Medicaid Drug Rebate program to utilization of prescriptions of individuals enrolled in Medicaid managed care organizations, subjected manufacturers to new annual fees and taxes for certain branded prescription drugs, and provided incentives to programs that increase the federal government’s comparative effectiveness research. Additionally, the Health Care Reform Law implemented a new Medicare Part D coverage gap discount program in which manufacturers must now agree to offer 70% point-of-sale discounts off negotiated prices of applicable brand drugs to eligible beneficiaries during their coverage gap period as a condition for the outpatient drugs being covered under Medicare Part D.

There have been executive, judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the Health Care Reform Law. For example, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, or TCJA, included a provision that repealed, effective January 1, 2019, the tax-based shared responsibility payment imposed by the Health Care Reform Law on certain individuals who fail to maintain qualifying health coverage for all or part of a year that is commonly referred to as the “individual mandate”. On June 17, 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed a challenge on procedural grounds that argued the Health Care Reform Law is unconstitutional in its entirety because the “individual mandate” was repealed by Congress. Thus, the Health Care Reform Law will remain in effect in its current form. Prior to the U.S. Supreme Court ruling, on January 28, 2021, President Biden issued an executive order to initiate a special enrollment period from February 15, 2021 through August 15, 2021 for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the Health Care Reform Law marketplace. The executive order also instructed certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their existing policies and rules that limit access to healthcare, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the Health Care Reform Law. It is possible that the Health Care Reform

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Law will be subject to judicial or Congressional challenges in the future. It is unclear how such challenges and the healthcare reform measures of the Biden administration will impact the Health Care Reform Law and our business.

In addition, other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since the Health Care Reform Law was enacted. In August 2011, President Obama signed into law the Budget Control Act of 2011, as amended, which, among other things, created the Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction to recommend proposals in spending reductions to Congress. The Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction did not achieve its targeted deficit reduction of at least $1.2 trillion for the years 2013 through 2021, triggering the legislation’s automatic reductions to several government programs. These reductions include aggregate reductions to Medicare payments to providers of up to 2% per fiscal year starting in 2013 and, due to subsequent legislative amendments, will remain in effect until 2031, except for a temporary suspension from May 1, 2020 through March 31, 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, unless additional Congressional action is taken. Under current legislation, the actual reduction in Medicare payments will vary from 1% in 2022 to up to 3% in the final fiscal year of this sequester. In January 2013, President Obama signed into law the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, which, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to several providers and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years. Additionally, on March 11, 2021, President Biden signed the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 into law, which eliminates the statutory Medicaid drug rebate cap, currently set at 100% of a drug’s average manufacturer price, for single source and innovator multiple source drugs, beginning January 1, 2024. Congress is considering additional health reform measures.

In the United States, the EU, and other potentially significant markets for our product candidates, government authorities and third-party payers are increasingly attempting to limit or regulate the price of medical products and services, particularly for new and innovative products and therapies, which often has resulted in average selling prices lower than they would otherwise be. Further, the increased emphasis on managed healthcare in the United States and on country and regional pricing and reimbursement controls in the EU will put additional pressure on product pricing, reimbursement and utilization, which may adversely affect our future product sales and results of operations. For example, there have been several recent U.S. Presidential executive orders, Congressional inquiries and proposed and enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, reduce the cost of drugs under Medicare, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. At the federal level, the Trump administration used several means to propose or implement drug pricing reform, including through federal budget proposals, executive orders and policy initiatives. For example, on July 24, 2020 and September 13, 2020, the Trump administration announced several executive orders related to prescription drug pricing that seek to implement several of the administration’s proposals. As a result, the FDA concurrently released a final rule and guidance in September 2020, providing pathways for states to build and submit importation plans for drugs from Canada. Further, on November 20, 2020, HHS finalized a regulation removing safe harbor protection for price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, either directly or through pharmacy benefit managers, unless the price reduction is required by law. The implementation of the rule has been delayed by the Biden administration from January 1, 2022 to January 1, 2023 in response to ongoing litigation. The rule also creates a new safe harbor for price reductions reflected at the point-of-sale, as well as a safe harbor for certain fixed fee arrangements between pharmacy benefit managers and manufacturers, the implementation of which have also been delayed by the Biden administration until January 1, 2023. On November 20, 2020, CMS issued an interim final rule implementing President Trump’s Most Favored Nation executive order, which would tie Medicare Part B payments for certain physician-administered drugs to the lowest price paid in other economically advanced countries, effective January 1, 2021. As a result of litigation challenging the Most Favored Nation model, on December 27, 2021, CMS published a final rule that rescinds the Most Favored Nation model interim final rule. Additionally, in July 2021, the Biden administration released an executive order, “Promoting Competition in the American Economy,” with multiple provisions aimed at prescription drugs. In response to Biden’s executive order, on September 9, 2021, HHS released a Comprehensive Plan for Addressing High Drug Prices that outlines principles for drug pricing reform and sets out a variety of potential legislative policies that Congress could pursue as well as potential administrative actions HHS can take to advance these principles. No legislation or administrative actions have been finalized to implement these principles. It is unclear whether these or similar policy initiatives will be implemented in the future. At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost

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disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. These pressures can arise from rules and practices of managed care groups, judicial decisions and laws and regulations related to Medicare, Medicaid and healthcare reform, pharmaceutical coverage and reimbursement policies and pricing in general.

These and other healthcare reform initiatives may result in additional reductions in Medicare payments and other healthcare funding, which could have a material adverse effect on our financial operations. We expect that additional state and federal healthcare reform measures will be adopted in the future, any of which could limit the amounts that federal and state governments will pay for healthcare products and services, which could further limit the prices we are able to charge, or the amounts of reimbursement available, for KORSUVA injection and our product candidates once they are approved. Further, it is possible that additional governmental action is taken in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Foreign Regulation

In order to market any product outside of the United States, we would need to comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements of other countries regarding safety and efficacy and governing, among other things, clinical trials, marketing authorization, commercial sales and distribution of our products. For example, in the EU, we must obtain authorization of a clinical trial application, or CTA, in each member state in which we intend to conduct a clinical trial. Whether or not we obtain FDA approval for a product, we would need to obtain the necessary approvals by the comparable regulatory authorities of foreign countries before we can commence clinical trials or marketing of the product in those countries. The approval process varies from country to country and can involve additional product testing and additional administrative review periods. The time required to obtain approval in other countries might differ from and be longer than that required to obtain FDA approval. Regulatory approval in one country does not ensure regulatory approval in another, but a failure or delay in obtaining regulatory approval in one country may negatively impact the regulatory process in others.

Employees and Human Capital

As of February 24, 2022, we had 84 employees, of whom 24 hold PharmD, PhD or MD degrees or the foreign equivalent. All of these employees are located in the United States. None of our employees are represented by a labor union or covered by a collective bargaining agreement. We consider our relationship with our employees to be good.

Our human capital resources objectives include, as applicable, identifying, recruiting, retaining, incentivizing, and integrating our existing and new employees, advisors, and consultants. The principal purposes of our equity and cash incentive plans are to attract, retain and reward personnel through the granting of stock-based and cash-based compensation awards, in order to increase stockholder value and the success of our company by motivating such individuals to perform to the best of their abilities and achieve our objectives.

Website Access to Reports

Our website is www.caratherapeutics.com. We are subject to the informational requirements of the Exchange Act and file or furnish reports, including our Annual Report on Form 10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Form 8-K, and amendments to reports filed pursuant to Sections 13(a) and 15(d) of the Exchange Act, proxy statements and other information with the SEC. We make copies of these reports and other information available free of charge through our website (under the heading “SEC Filings”) as soon as reasonably practicable after we file or furnish them with the SEC. The SEC maintains a website that contains reports, proxy and information statements and other information regarding issuers that file electronically with the SEC at www.sec.gov. The information contained on the websites referenced in this Annual Report on Form 10-K is not incorporated by reference into this filing, and the website addresses are provided only as inactive textual references.

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Item 1A. Risk Factors

In addition to other information contained in this Annual Report on Form 10-K, the following risks should be considered in evaluating our business and future prospects and an investment in our common stock. The risks and uncertainties described below are not the only ones we face. If any of the following risks and uncertainties develops into actual events, our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows could be materially adversely affected. In that case, the price of our common stock could decline and you may lose all or part of your investment.

Risks Related to Our Business and the Development and Commercialization of Our Product and Product Candidates

We are substantially dependent on the success of our product and product candidates. If we are unable to successfully complete clinical development, obtain additional regulatory approvals and commercialize our product and product candidates, or experience significant delays in doing so, our business will be materially harmed.

Our business depends on the successful development, regulatory approval and commercialization of our product, KORSUVA injection, and product candidates. In August 2021, the FDA approved KORSUVA injection for the treatment of moderate-to-severe CKD-aP in adults undergoing hemodialysis. Our partner, VFMCRP, submitted an MAA to the EMA in March 2021, which was accepted for review by the EMA. If approved, KORSUVA injection would receive marketing authorization in all member states of the EU, as well as in Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. The EMA’s decision on the EU MAA is expected in the second quarter of 2022; however, we cannot assure you that the results of our trials will successfully support the additional regulatory applications for approval. Our ability to generate product revenues in the near term is dependent on our and our commercial partners’ ability to successfully commercialize KORSUVA injection. Although during the year ended December 31, 2021 we recognized commercial supply revenue of $0.7 million from the sale of KORSUVA injection to Vifor, we currently generate no revenues from sales of any products, and we may never be able to develop or successfully commercialize a marketable product.

KORSUVA injection in the U.S. will require marketing efforts by our commercial partners before we generate any revenues from product sales. For example, we submitted required documents to CMS to ensure timely reimbursement and patient access to KORSUVA injection. Vifor Pharma Group submitted the application for a HCPCS reimbursement code and the payment reimbursement application for a TDAPA to CMS in September 2021. In December 2021, CMS granted TDAPA to KORSUVA injection in the anti-pruritic functional category. TDAPA will apply to KORSUVA injection beginning April 1, 2022 for two years. CMS expressed in its written communication to us and Vifor Pharma, a continuing interest in engaging with the companies regarding potential post-TDAPA support to ensure all beneficiaries with ESRD have access to innovative products such as KORSUVA injection. However, there is no assurance that KORSUVA injection will be able to maintain its price established in the TDAPA period in the post-TDAPA timeframe. If we and our commercial partners do not successfully commercialize KORSUVA injection, we will not be able to generate revenue from sales of any products in the United States in the foreseeable future, or at all. Any significant delays in commercializing KORSUVA injection will have a substantial adverse impact on our business and financial condition.

Further, we cannot be certain that Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) or any future product candidates will be successful in clinical trials or receive regulatory approval. Regulatory authorities may interpret our data differently than we have. We are not permitted to market or promote any of our product candidates before we receive regulatory approval from the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities, and we may never receive such regulatory approval for any of our product candidates.

The success of our products and product candidates depends on many factors, including but not limited to:

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If we do not achieve and maintain one or more of these factors in a timely manner or at all, we could experience significant delays in our ability to, or be unable to obtain additional regulatory approvals for, and/or to successfully commercialize our products and product candidates, which would materially harm our business and we may not be able to generate sufficient revenues and cash flows to continue our operations.

We rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties to conduct our preclinical studies and clinical trials, and those third parties may not perform satisfactorily, including failing to meet deadlines for the completion of such trials.

We rely on third-party CROs to conduct our preclinical and clinical trials for all of our product candidates, and do not plan to independently conduct clinical trials of any other potential product candidates. We expect to continue to rely on third parties, such as CROs, clinical data management organizations, medical institutions and clinical investigators, to conduct our preclinical studies and clinical trials. These agreements might terminate for a variety of reasons, including a failure to perform by the third parties. If we need to enter into alternative arrangements, that would delay our product development activities and adversely affect our business.

Our reliance on these third parties for development activities will reduce our control over these activities. Nevertheless, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our studies is conducted in accordance with the applicable protocol, legal, regulatory and scientific standards and our reliance on the CROs does not relieve us of our regulatory responsibilities. For example, we will remain responsible for ensuring that each of our clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the general investigational plan and protocols for the trial and for ensuring that our preclinical trials are conducted in accordance with FDA’s good laboratory practice, or GLP, as appropriate. Moreover, the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities require us to comply with standards, commonly referred to as good clinical practices, or GCPs, for conducting, recording and reporting the results of clinical trials to assure that data and reported results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of trial participants are protected.

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Regulatory authorities enforce these requirements through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, clinical investigators and trial sites. If we or any of our CROs fail to comply with applicable GCPs, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. We cannot assure you that upon inspection by a given regulatory authority, such regulatory authority will determine that any of our clinical trials complies with GCP regulations. In addition, our clinical trials must be conducted with product produced, under current good manufacturing practices, or cGMP, regulations. Our failure to comply with these regulations may require us to repeat clinical trials, which would delay the regulatory approval process. We also are required to register certain clinical trials and post the results of certain completed clinical trials on a government-sponsored database, ClinicalTrials.gov, within specified timeframes. Failure to do so can result in fines, adverse publicity and civil and criminal sanctions.

Our CROs may also have relationships with other entities, some of which may be our competitors. In addition, our CROs are not our employees, and except for remedies available to us under our agreements with such CROs, we cannot control whether or not they devote sufficient time and resources to our on-going clinical, non-clinical and preclinical programs. In addition, the operations of our CROs may be constrained or disrupted by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. If these third parties do not successfully carry out their contractual duties, meet expected deadlines or conduct our preclinical studies or clinical trials in accordance with regulatory requirements or our stated protocols, if they need to be replaced or if the quality or accuracy of the clinical data they obtain is compromised due to the failure to adhere to our clinical protocols, regulatory requirements or for other reasons, our clinical trials may be extended, delayed or terminated and we may not be able to obtain, or may be delayed in obtaining, marketing approvals for our product candidates and will not be able to, or may be delayed in our efforts to, successfully commercialize our products and product candidates. As a result, our results of operations and the commercial prospects for our products and product candidates would be harmed, our costs could increase and our ability to generate revenues could be delayed.

If any of our relationships with these third-party CROs terminate, we may not be able to enter into arrangements with alternative CROs or to do so on commercially reasonable terms. Switching or adding additional CROs involves additional cost and requires management time and focus. In addition, there is a natural transition period when a new CRO commences work. As a result, delays could occur, which could compromise our ability to meet our desired development timelines. Though we carefully manage our relationships with our CROs, there can be no assurance that we will not encounter similar challenges or delays in the future or that these delays or challenges will not have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and prospects.

If the manufacturers upon whom we rely fail to produce our products or product candidates in the volumes that we require on a timely basis, or to comply with stringent regulations applicable to pharmaceutical drug manufacturers, we may face delays in the development and commercialization of, or be unable to meet demand for, our products and may lose potential revenues.

We do not manufacture KORSUVA injection or any of our product candidates, and we do not currently plan to develop any capacity to do so. We currently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties for the manufacture of our products for commercialization and product candidates for preclinical and clinical testing. It is our intention that by the time of additional regulatory approvals for commercialization, we will have negotiated long-term commitments with at least one primary supplier for each manufacturing and distribution function. In July 2019, we entered into a non-exclusive commercial manufacturing agreement with Patheon for KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection and in July 2021, we entered into a commercial supply agreement with Polypeptide Laboratories S.A., or PPL, for the KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection. Any problems or delays we experience in preparing for commercial-scale manufacturing of a product or product candidate may result in a delay in FDA approval of the product candidate or may impair our ability to manufacture commercial quantities, which would adversely affect our business. For example, our manufacturers will need to produce specific batches of our products and product candidates to demonstrate acceptable stability under various conditions and for commercially viable lengths of time. We and our contract manufacturers will need to demonstrate to the FDA and other regulatory authorities this acceptable stability data for our products and product candidates, as well as validate methods and manufacturing processes, in order to receive and maintain regulatory approval to commercialize KORSUVA injection or any other product candidates. Furthermore, if our commercial manufacturers fail to deliver the required commercial quantities of bulk drug substance or finished product on a timely

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basis and at commercially reasonable prices, we would likely be unable to meet demand for our products and we would lose potential revenues.

The manufacture of pharmaceutical products requires significant expertise and capital investment, including the development of advanced manufacturing techniques and process controls. Manufacturers of pharmaceutical products often encounter difficulties in production, particularly in scaling up initial production. These problems include difficulties with production costs and yields, quality control, including stability of the products and product candidate and quality assurance testing, shortages of qualified personnel, as well as compliance with strictly enforced federal, state and foreign regulations. Our manufacturers may not perform as agreed. If our manufacturers were to encounter any of these difficulties, our ability to provide products for commercialization and product candidates to patients in our clinical trials would be jeopardized. This could, among other things, lead to increased costs, lost revenue, damage to customer relationships, time and expense spent investigating the cause and, depending on the cause, similar losses with respect to other batches or products. If problems are not discovered before the product is released to the market, recall and product liability costs may also be incurred.

Further, we may rely on proprietary technology developed by our contract manufacturers for purposes of manufacturing certain of our products and product candidates and our failure to negotiate or maintain the long-term use of any such proprietary technology or the inability for our contract manufacturers to produce our products and product candidates or components of our products and product candidates in the volumes that we require on a timely basis, may lead to delays or interruptions in the regulatory approval or commercialization process, as well as increased costs. For example, in August 2019, we entered into the Enteris License Agreement and intend to use Enteris’s Peptelligence® technology to develop, manufacture and commercialize Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin). If we experience any interruptions in the manufacture, delivery or scale-up of the Enteris formulation technology, we may experience delays in the development and commercialization of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin). Further, if we are unable to maintain our relationship with Enteris, we may be forced to reformulate Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) which could result in significantly delaying commercializing Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) and require us to incur additional costs in connection with such reformulation and potentially needed to seek additional approvals from the FDA. The operations of our third-party manufacturers have been and may in the future be constrained or disrupted and their operating capacity may be reduced by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which could negatively impact our clinical development and commercialization timelines.

In addition, all manufacturers of our products and product candidates must comply with cGMP requirements enforced by the FDA through its facilities inspection program. These requirements include quality control, quality assurance and the maintenance of records and documentation. Manufacturers of our products and product candidates may be unable to comply with these cGMP requirements and with other FDA, state and foreign regulatory requirements. If our contract manufacturers cannot successfully manufacture material that conforms to our specifications and the strict regulatory requirements of the FDA or other regulatory authorities, they will not be able to secure and/or maintain regulatory approval for their manufacturing facilities. In addition, regulatory agencies subject an approved product, its manufacturer and the manufacturer’s facilities to continual review and inspections, including periodic unannounced inspections. The subsequent discovery of previously unknown problems with our current or any future approved products, including adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facilities where our current or any future approved products are manufactured, may result in restrictions on the marketing of our current or any such future approved products, up to and including withdrawal of the affected product from the market. We have little control over our manufacturers’ compliance with these regulations and standards. If the FDA or a comparable foreign regulatory authority does not approve these facilities for the manufacture of our products and product candidates or if it withdraws any such approval in the future, we may need to find alternative manufacturing facilities, which would significantly impact our ability to develop, obtain regulatory approval for or market our products and product candidates, if approved. A failure to comply with these requirements may result in fines and civil penalties, suspension of production, suspension, delay or denial of product approval, product seizure or recall, or withdrawal of product approval. If the safety of any quantities supplied is compromised due to our manufacturers’ failure to adhere to applicable laws or for other reasons, we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for or successfully commercialize our products and product candidates.

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Even if we obtain additional regulatory approvals for our product candidates, they may never be successfully launched or become profitable, in which case our business, prospects, operating results and financial condition may be materially harmed.

In order to successfully launch our products and product candidates and have them become profitable, we anticipate that we will have to dedicate substantial time and resources. Our ability to generate revenues from our commercialized products will depend on a number of factors, including, but not limited to:

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with our commercialization efforts, we may not be able to achieve profitability. Even if we do achieve profitability, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability on a quarterly or annual basis. A failure to become and remain profitable would depress the value of our company and could impair our ability to raise capital, expand our business, diversify our product offerings or continue our operations. A decline in the value of our company could also cause you to lose all or part of your investment.

If we or our collaborators are unable to establish effective marketing and sales capabilities, or if we are unable to enter into or maintain agreements with third parties to market and sell our products and product candidates, if they are approved, we may be unable to generate product revenues.

We currently do not have an internal commercial infrastructure for the marketing, sale and distribution of pharmaceutical products. In order to commercialize our product and product candidates (if approved), we must build our marketing, sales and distribution capabilities or make and maintain arrangements with third parties to perform these services. We have no prior experience in the marketing, sale and distribution of pharmaceutical products, and there are significant risks involved in the building and managing of a commercial infrastructure to the extent we choose to do so in the future. The establishment and development of our own sales force and related plans to market any products we may develop will be expensive and time consuming and could delay any product launch, and we may not be able to successfully develop this capability.

In August 2021, the FDA approved KORSUVA injection for the treatment of moderate-to-severe CKD-AP in adults undergoing hemodialysis in the U.S. We have entered into agreements with Vifor and VFMCRP to commercialize KORSUVA injection in the U.S. We are dependent on Vifor and VFMCRP to successfully commercialize KORSUVA injection with their own, or their collaborators’, sales force. We have partnered with VFMCRP to commercialize KORSUVA worldwide (if and when approved), excluding Japan (Maruishi/sub-licensee Kissei), and South Korea (CKDP). We and Vifor began commercializing KORSUVA injection in the U.S. in December 2021 and we expect commercial launch of KORSUVA injection in April 2022 and associated revenues in the second quarter of 2022.

We, or our partners or collaborators, will have to compete with other pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies to recruit, hire, train, manage and retain marketing and sales personnel. In the event that we or our partners or our

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collaborators are unable to develop a marketing and sales infrastructure, we may not be able to commercialize KORSUVA injection or any of our other current or future product candidates, which would limit our ability to generate product revenues. Factors that may inhibit our or our partners’ or collaborators’ efforts to commercialize KORSUVA injection or our other current or future product candidates include:

Our or our partners’ or our collaborators’ sales force and marketing teams may not be successful in commercializing KORSUVA injection or any of our other current or future product candidates.

In the event that we are unable to successfully collaborate with a third-party marketing and sales organization to commercialize any approved product candidates outside the United States, our ability to generate product revenues may be limited. To the extent that we rely on third parties to commercialize products for which we obtain regulatory approval, we may receive less revenues than if we commercialized these products ourselves. In addition, we would have less control over the sales efforts of any other third parties involved in our commercialization efforts.

We face significant competition from other pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, academic institutions, government agencies and other research organizations. Our operating results will suffer if we fail to compete effectively.

The development and commercialization of new drug products is highly competitive. We face competition with respect to our current products and product candidates and will face competition with respect to any product candidates that we may seek to develop or commercialize in the future, from major pharmaceutical companies, specialty pharmaceutical companies and biotechnology companies worldwide. There are a number of large pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies that currently market and sell products or are pursuing the development of products for the treatment of pain and pruritus. Potential competitors also include academic institutions, government agencies and other public and private research organizations that conduct research, seek patent protection and establish collaborative arrangements for research, development, manufacturing and commercialization.

Among the companies that currently market or are developing therapies in the pruritus space that, if approved, our products and product candidates may potentially compete with include: Pfizer, AbbVie, Eli Lilly, Amgen, Regeneron, Leo Pharma, Galderma, Chugai, Trevi and others.

Our commercial opportunity could be reduced or eliminated if our competitors develop and commercialize products that are safer, more effective, have fewer or less severe side effects, are more convenient or are less expensive than our products or our current or future product candidates. Our competitors also may obtain FDA or other regulatory approval for their products more rapidly than we may obtain approval for ours, which could result in our competitors establishing a strong market position before we are able to enter the market. In addition, our ability to compete may be affected in many cases by insurers or other third-party payers seeking to encourage the use of generic products. Generic products are currently on the market for some of the indications that we are pursuing, and additional products are expected to become available on a generic basis over the coming years. We expect that KORSUVA injection, and our product candidates (if approved), will be priced at a significant premium over competitive generic products.

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Many of the companies against which we are competing or against which we may compete in the future have significantly greater financial resources and expertise in R&D, manufacturing, preclinical testing, conducting clinical trials, obtaining regulatory approvals and marketing approved products than we do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a smaller number of our competitors. Early-stage companies may also prove to be significant competitors, particularly through collaborative arrangements with large and established companies. These third parties compete with us in recruiting and retaining qualified scientific and management personnel, establishing clinical trial sites and patient registration for clinical trials, as well as in acquiring technologies complementary to, or necessary for, our programs.

To the extent that KORSUVA injection or our product candidates, if approved, do not achieve broad market acceptance, the revenues that we generate from sales will be limited.

We have never successfully commercialized a product or product candidate for any indication. KORSUVA injection and our other current or future product candidates, if approved by the appropriate regulatory authorities for marketing and sale, may not gain acceptance among physicians, hospitals, dialysis providers, patients and third-party payers. If KORSUVA injection and any product candidates for which we obtain regulatory approval do not gain an adequate level of market acceptance, we may not generate significant product revenues or become profitable. Market acceptance of KORSUVA injection, Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) and any future product candidate by physicians, hospitals, dialysis providers, patients and third-party payers will depend on a number of factors, some of which are beyond our control. The degree of market acceptance of KORSUVA injection and any of our product candidates will depend on a number of factors, including:

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Our and our commercial partners’ ability to effectively promote and sell KORSUVA injection and our current and future product candidates, if approved, will also depend on pricing and cost effectiveness, including our ability to produce a product at a competitive price and achieve acceptance of the product onto dialysis organization or hospital formularies, and our ability to obtain sufficient third-party coverage or reimbursement. Generally, before we or our commercial partners can attempt to sell a product in a hospital or dialysis provider, it must be approved for addition to that institution’s list of drugs approved for use in that institution, or formulary list. In evaluating drugs for inclusion on the formulary list, hospitals and dialysis providers evaluate a variety of factors, including cost. The frequency with which hospitals and dialysis providers add and remove drugs from their formulary lists varies from organization to organization, and institutions often require additional information prior to adding new drugs to their formulary, which may result in substantial delays in our receiving formulary approval for KORSUVA injection. Since most hospitals are members of group purchasing organizations, which leverage the purchasing power of a group of entities to obtain discounts based on the collective buying power of the group, our and our commercial partners’ ability to access customers in the hospital marketplace will also depend on our ability to effectively promote KORSUVA injection and our product candidates to group purchasing organizations. We will also need to demonstrate acceptable evidence of safety and efficacy, as well as relative convenience and ease of administration. Market acceptance could be limited depending on the prevalence and severity of any expected or unexpected adverse side effects associated with KORSUVA injection and our product candidates.

In addition, the potential market opportunity for KORSUVA injection and for our product candidates is difficult to precisely estimate. Our internal estimates of the potential market opportunity for our products and product candidates include several key assumptions based on our industry knowledge, industry publications, third-party research reports, assessment of competition, and other surveys. While we believe that our internal assumptions are reasonable, no independent source has verified such assumptions. If any of these assumptions proves to be inaccurate, then the actual market for our products and product candidates could be smaller than our estimates of our potential market opportunity. If the actual market for our products and product candidates is small, and/or smaller than we expect, our product revenue may be limited and it may be more difficult for us to achieve or maintain profitability.

Our and our commercial partners’ efforts to educate the medical community and third-party payers on the benefits of KORSUVA injection and our product candidates may require significant resources and may never be successful. Even if the medical community accepts that KORSUVA injection or one of our product candidates is safe and effective for its approved indications, physicians and patients may not immediately be receptive to such product or product candidate and may be slow to adopt it as an accepted treatment of pain or pruritus. It is unlikely that any future labeling approved by the FDA will contain claims that one of our products or product candidates is safer or more effective than competitive products or will permit us to promote such products or product candidate as being superior to competing products. Further, the availability of inexpensive generic forms of products for acute and chronic pain as well as pruritus may also limit acceptance of KORSUVA injection and our product candidates among physicians, patients and third-party payers. If KORSUVA injection and our current and any future product candidate, if approved, does not achieve an adequate level of acceptance among physicians, patients and third-party payers, we may not generate meaningful revenues from KORSUVA injection or our current and future product candidates, and we may not become profitable.

We face potential product liability exposure, and if successful claims are brought against us, we may incur substantial liability for KORSUVA injection or our other current and future product candidates that we may develop and may have to limit their commercialization.

We face an inherent risk of product liability lawsuits related to the sale of our products to, use of our products by, and testing of our product candidates in, seriously ill patients. For example, product liability claims might be brought against us by consumers, healthcare providers or others using, administering or selling our products. We may be sued if any product we develop allegedly causes injury or is found to be otherwise unsuitable during clinical testing, manufacturing, marketing or sale. Any such product liability claims may include allegations of defects in manufacturing, defects in design, a failure to warn of dangers inherent in the product, negligence, strict liability or a breach of

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warranties. If we cannot successfully defend ourselves against these claims, we will incur substantial liabilities. Regardless of merit or eventual outcome, liability claims may result in:

With respect to KORSUVA injection and any of our other product candidates that are approved for commercial sale, we are, and will be, highly dependent upon physician and patient perceptions of us and the safety and quality of our products. We could be adversely affected if we are subject to negative publicity. We could also be adversely affected if any of our products or any similar products distributed by other companies prove to be, or are asserted to be, harmful to patients. Because of our dependence upon consumer perceptions, any adverse publicity associated with illness or other adverse effects resulting from patients’ use or misuse of our products or any similar products distributed by other companies could have a material adverse impact on our financial condition or results of operations.

We have obtained limited product liability insurance coverage for our products and our clinical trials with a $10.0 million annual aggregate coverage limit in the United States and various other coverage limits outside of the United States. However, our insurance coverage may not reimburse us or may not be sufficient to reimburse us for any expenses or losses we may suffer. Moreover, insurance coverage is becoming increasingly expensive, and, in the future, we may not be able to maintain insurance coverage at a reasonable cost or in sufficient amounts to protect us against losses due to liability. We intend to expand our insurance coverage to include the sale of commercial products for our product candidates in development, but we may be unable to obtain commercially reasonable product liability insurance for any products approved for marketing, or at all. On occasion, large judgments have been awarded in class action lawsuits based on drugs that had unanticipated side effects. A successful product liability claim or series of claims brought against us could cause our stock price to fall and, if judgments exceed our insurance coverage, could decrease our cash and adversely affect our business.

Our business, operations and clinical development and regulatory timelines and plans have been, and could continue to be, adversely affected by the effects of health epidemics, including the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

Our business, operations and clinical development timelines and plans have been, and could continue to be, adversely affected by health epidemics in regions where we have concentrations of third-party manufacturers, clinical trial sites or other business operations, and could cause significant disruption in the operations of third-party manufacturers or CROs upon whom we rely. In response to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, many state, local and

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foreign governments have put in place, and continue to enforce in full or in part, quarantines, executive orders, shelter-in-place orders and similar government orders and restrictions in order to control the spread of the disease and its variants. Such orders or restrictions, and the perception that such orders or restrictions could occur, have resulted in business closures, work stoppages, slowdowns and delays, work-from-home policies, travel restrictions and cancellation of events, among other effects that have negatively impacted the global economy and could disrupt our business and operations. We have implemented a work-from-home policy for all employees, and we may take further actions that alter our operations as may be required by federal, state or local authorities, or which we determine are in the best interests of our employees. Moreover, our clinical development and regulatory timelines and plans could be affected by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Site initiation and patient enrollment has been, and could in the future be, affected and some patients may not be able to comply with clinical trial protocols and the ability to conduct follow up visits with treated patients may be limited if quarantines impede patient movement or interrupt healthcare services. For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has affected the initiation of certain trial sites and patient enrollment for certain of our clinical trials, including our ongoing Phase 2 clinical trials of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for NP and for the treatment of pruritus in patients with hepatic impairment due to PBC. Similarly, our ability to recruit and retain patients and principal investigators and site staff who, as healthcare providers, may have heightened exposure to COVID-19 could be adversely impacted. Furthermore, our third-party manufacturers may be shut down or have difficulty meeting their contractual obligations, which may disrupt commercial and clinical drug supply chain continuity and the commercial launch of KORSUVA injection. In addition, COVID-19 may cause our third-party manufacturers of KORSUVA injection to operate at reduced capacity. While we currently do not expect any significant delays in our clinical development or commercial timelines, the ultimate impact of the evolving COVID-19 pandemic remains difficult to predict.

Further, the spread of COVID-19, which has caused a broad impact globally, may materially affect us economically. While the potential economic impact brought by and the duration of COVID-19 may be difficult to assess or predict, a widespread pandemic could result in significant disruption of global financial markets, reducing our ability to access capital, which could in the future negatively affect our liquidity. In addition, a recession or market correction resulting from the spread of COVID-19 could materially affect our business and the value of our common stock.

The global COVID-19 pandemic continues to rapidly evolve, and we will continue to monitor the COVID-19 situation closely. The ultimate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic or a similar health epidemic is highly uncertain and subject to change. We do not yet know the full extent of the potential impacts on our business, our clinical trials, healthcare systems or the global economy as a whole.

We may expend our limited resources to pursue a particular product candidate or indication and fail to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

Because we have limited financial and managerial resources, we focus on developing product candidates for specific indications that we identify as most likely to succeed, in terms of both its regulatory approval and commercialization. As such, we are currently primarily focused on the development of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for AD-aP, NDD-CKD, CLD-PBC and NP. Further, at this time, we have de-prioritized the PONV program, as part of our strategy to focus on pruritus. As a result, we may have foregone or delayed, or may in the future forgo or delay, pursuit of opportunities with other product candidates or for other indications that may prove to have greater commercial potential. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable commercial products or profitable market opportunities. Our spending on current and future R&D programs and product candidates for specific indications may not yield any commercially viable products. If we do not accurately evaluate the commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in cases in which it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole development and commercialization rights to such product candidate.

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Our future growth may depend on our ability to identify and develop products and if we do not successfully identify and develop product candidates or integrate them into our operations, we may have limited growth opportunities.

A component of our business strategy is to continue to develop a pipeline of product candidates by developing products that we believe are a strategic fit with our focus on pain and pruritus therapeutics. However, these business activities may entail numerous operational and financial risks, including:

We have limited resources to identify and execute the development of products. Moreover, we may devote resources to potential development that are never completed, or we may fail to realize the anticipated benefits of such efforts. If we do not successfully develop and commercialize product candidates, we may not be able to obtain product revenues in future periods.

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA and comparable foreign authorities are lengthy, time consuming and inherently unpredictable. If we are not able to obtain, or if there are delays in obtaining, required additional regulatory approvals, we will not be able to commercialize our product candidates as expected, and our ability to generate revenue will be materially impaired.

The time required to obtain approval by the FDA and comparable foreign authorities is unpredictable but typically takes many years following the commencement of clinical trials and depends upon numerous factors, including the substantial discretion of the regulatory authorities. In addition, approval policies, regulations, or the type and amount of clinical data necessary to gain approval may change during the course of a product candidate’s clinical development and may vary among jurisdictions. In August 2021, the FDA approved KORSUVA injection for the treatment of moderate-to-severe CKD-aP in adults undergoing hemodialysis in the U.S. Our partner, VFMCRP, submitted an MAA to the EMA in March 2021. We have not obtained regulatory approval for our other product candidates and it is possible that none of our existing product candidates, including KORSUVA injection in the EMA and Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin), or any product candidates we may seek to develop in the future, will ever obtain regulatory approval.

Our product candidates and the activities associated with their development and commercialization, including their design, testing, manufacture, safety, efficacy, recordkeeping, labeling, storage, approval, advertising, promotion, sale and distribution, are subject to comprehensive regulation by the FDA and other regulatory agencies in the United States and by the EMA, and similar regulatory authorities outside the United States. Failure to obtain marketing approval for a product candidate will prevent us from commercializing that product candidate. We expect to continue to rely on third-party CROs and consultants to assist us in filing and supporting the applications necessary to gain marketing approvals. Securing marketing approval requires the submission of extensive preclinical and clinical data and supporting information to regulatory authorities for each therapeutic indication to establish the product candidate’s safety and efficacy for that indication. Securing marketing approval also requires the submission of information about the product manufacturing process to, and inspection of manufacturing facilities by, the regulatory authorities.

Clinical testing is expensive and can take many years to complete, and its outcome is inherently uncertain. Failure can occur at any time during the clinical trial process. The results of preclinical studies and early clinical trials of our product candidates may not be predictive of the results of later-stage clinical trials. Product candidates in later stages of

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clinical trials may fail to show the desired safety and efficacy traits despite having progressed through preclinical studies and initial clinical trials. A number of companies in the biopharmaceutical industry have suffered significant setbacks in advanced clinical trials due to lack of efficacy or adverse safety profiles, notwithstanding promising results in earlier trials. Our future clinical trial results may not be successful. We may also experience numerous unforeseen events during, or as a result of, clinical trials that could delay or prevent our ability to receive marketing approval or commercialize our product candidates, including:

In addition, unfavorable changes in our industry or the global economy, including as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, could contribute to some of the events listed above and further impact our ability to progress our clinical trials, submit for marketing approval or commercialize our product candidates, if approved, as planned. Further, if and to the extent, global health concerns prevent the FDA or other regulatory authorities from conducting their regular inspections, reviews, or other regulatory activities, it could significantly impact the ability of the FDA or other regulatory authorities to timely review and process our additional regulatory submissions, which could affect our ability

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to obtain marketing approval for any of our product candidates, including our MAA to the EMA submitted in March 2021.

Moreover, if we are required to conduct additional clinical trials or other testing of our product candidates beyond those that we currently contemplate, if we are unable to successfully complete clinical trials of our product candidates or other testing, if the results of these trials or tests are not positive or are only modestly positive or if there are safety concerns, we may:

Furthermore, regulatory authorities have substantial discretion in the approval process and may refuse to accept any application or may decide that our data is insufficient for approval and require additional preclinical, clinical or other studies, including with respect to third-party technology used in any of our product candidates such as the excipient we intend to use for Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin). In addition, varying interpretations of the data obtained from preclinical and clinical testing could delay, limit or prevent marketing approval of a product candidate. Any marketing approval we ultimately obtain may be limited or subject to restrictions or post-approval commitments that render the approved product not commercially viable.

Finally, even if we were to obtain approval, regulatory authorities may approve any of our product candidates for fewer or more limited indications than we request, may grant approval contingent on the performance of costly post-marketing clinical trials, or may approve a product candidate with a label that does not include the labeling claims necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of that product candidate. Any of these scenarios could compromise the commercial prospects for our product candidates to assure safe use of the product candidates, either as a condition of product candidate approval or on the basis of new safety information.

If we experience delays in obtaining approval, if we fail to obtain approval of a product candidate or if the label for a product candidate does not include the labeling claims necessary or desirable for the successful commercialization of that product candidate, the commercial prospects for such product candidate may be harmed and our ability to generate revenues will be materially impaired.

For our approved product, KORSUVA injection, we will be subject to ongoing obligations and continued regulatory review, which may result in significant additional expense. Additionally, our product candidates, if approved, could be subject to labeling and other restrictions and market withdrawal and we may be subject to penalties if we fail to comply with regulatory requirements or experience unanticipated problems with our products.

KORSUVA injection and any product candidate for which we obtain marketing approval, along with the manufacturing processes, post-approval clinical data (if any), labeling, packaging, distribution, adverse event reporting, storage, recordkeeping, export, import, advertising and promotional activities for such product, will be subject to extensive and ongoing requirements of and review by the FDA and other regulatory authorities. These requirements include submissions of safety and other post-marketing information and reports, registration and listing requirements, continued compliance with cGMP requirements relating to manufacturing, quality control, quality assurance and corresponding maintenance of records and documents, requirements regarding the distribution of samples to physicians and recordkeeping and cGCPs for any clinical trials that we conduct post-approval. Even if marketing approval of a

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product candidate is granted, the approval may be subject to limitations on the indicated uses for which the product may be marketed or to the conditions of approval, including any requirement to implement a Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies, or REMS. If any of our product candidates receives marketing approval, the accompanying label may limit the approved use of our drug, which could limit sales of the product.

The FDA may also impose requirements for costly post-marketing studies or clinical trials and surveillance to monitor the safety or efficacy of the product. The FDA closely regulates the post-approval marketing and promotion of drugs to ensure drugs are marketed only for the approved indications and in accordance with the provisions of the approved labeling. The FDA imposes stringent restrictions on manufacturers’ communications regarding off-label use and if we do not market our products for their approved indications, we may be subject to enforcement action for off-label marketing. Violations of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act relating to the promotion of prescription drugs may lead to investigations alleging violations of federal and state health care fraud and abuse laws, as well as state consumer protection laws.

In addition, later discovery of previously unknown adverse events or other problems with our products, manufacturers or manufacturing processes, or failure to comply with regulatory requirements, may yield various results, including:

The FDA’s policies may change and additional government regulations may be enacted that could prevent, limit or delay regulatory approval of our product candidates. If we are slow or unable to adapt to changes in existing requirements or the adoption of new requirements or policies, or if we are not able to maintain regulatory compliance, we may lose any marketing approval that we may have obtained.

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Regulatory approval is limited by the FDA to those specific indications and conditions for which clinical safety and efficacy have been demonstrated, and we may be subject to fines, penalties or injunctions if we are determined to be promoting the use of our products for unapproved or “off-label” uses, resulting in damage to our reputation and business.

When the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities issue regulatory approval for a product candidate, the regulatory approval is limited to those specific indications for which a product is approved. For example, the FDA approved KORSUVA injection for the treatment of moderate-to-severe CKD-AP in adults undergoing hemodialysis indication. If we are not able to obtain FDA approval for any desired future indications for our products and product candidates, our ability to effectively market and sell our products may be reduced and our business may be adversely affected.

While physicians may choose to prescribe drugs for uses that are not described in the product’s labeling and for uses that differ from those tested in clinical studies and approved by the regulatory authorities, we are prohibited from marketing and promoting the products for indications that are not specifically approved by the FDA. These “off-label” uses are common across medical specialties and may constitute an appropriate treatment for some patients in varied circumstances. Regulatory authorities in the United States generally do not restrict or regulate the behavior of physicians in their choice of treatment within the practice of medicine. Regulatory authorities do, however, restrict communications by pharmaceutical companies on off-label use. If the FDA determines that our or our commercial partners’ promotional activities constitute promotion of an off-label use, it could request that we modify our promotional materials. Further, off-label promotion could subject us to regulatory or enforcement actions by the FDA and other agencies, including issuance of warning letters or untitled letters, suspension or withdraw an approved product from the market, mandatory or voluntary recalls, civil fines, disgorgement of money, operating restrictions, additional reporting requirements and/or oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement, injunctions or criminal prosecution, any of which could significantly harm our business.

Failure to obtain marketing approval in international jurisdictions would prevent our product candidates from being marketed abroad.

In order to market and sell our products in the EU and many other jurisdictions, we or our collaborators or partners must obtain separate marketing approvals and comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements. For example, our partner, VFMCRP, submitted an MAA to the EMA in March 2021, which was accepted for review by the EMA. Although we obtained FDA approval of KORSUVA injection in the U.S., the approval procedure varies among countries and can involve additional testing. The time required to obtain approval may differ substantially from that required to obtain FDA approval. The regulatory approval process outside the United States generally includes all of the risks associated with obtaining FDA approval. In addition, in many countries outside the United States, it is required that the product be approved for reimbursement before the product can be approved for sale in that country. We or these third parties may not obtain approvals from regulatory authorities outside the United States on a timely basis, if at all. Approval by the FDA does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions, and approval by one regulatory authority outside the United States does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions or by the FDA. However, the failure to obtain approval in one jurisdiction may compromise our or our collaborators’ or partners’ ability to obtain approval elsewhere. We or our collaborators or partners may not be able to file for marketing approvals and may not receive necessary approvals to commercialize our products in any market.

Our products, including KORSUVA injection, may have undesirable side effects that may require them to be taken off the market, require them to include safety warnings or otherwise limit their sales. Further, our product candidates may have serious adverse events or undesirable side effects that may limit dosing in development, delay or prevent regulatory or marketing approval.

Undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates could cause us or regulatory authorities to limit dosage in development or interrupt, delay or halt clinical trials and could result in a more restrictive label or the delay or denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or other comparable foreign authorities. For example, in February 2016, the FDA placed our adaptive trial of I.V. difelikefalin for postoperative pain on IND clinical hold pending a safety review. The

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clinical hold was based on a stopping rule related to elevated serum sodium levels of greater than 150 mmol/L. After the safety review was completed, the FDA removed this clinical hold in April 2016 and the clinical trial was resumed in June 2016. If other concerns are raised regarding the safety of a new drug as a result of undesirable side effects identified during clinical testing, the FDA may order us to cease further development, decline to approve the drug or issue a letter requesting additional data or information prior to making a final decision regarding whether or not to approve the drug. The number of such requests for additional data or information issued by the FDA in recent years has increased and resulted in substantial delays in the approval of several new drugs. Undesirable side effects caused by I.V. difelikefalin or any of our other current or future product candidates could also result in denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or other regulatory authorities for any or all targeted indications or the inclusion of unfavorable information in our product labeling, and in turn prevent us from commercializing and generating revenues from the sale of I.V. difelikefalin for acute post-operative pain or any other product candidate. Approval of our current or future product candidates may include aspects of product labeling that limit its commercial use, including a Boxed Warning, REMS or other limitations of use.

To date, the side effects observed in the completed I.V. difelikefalin clinical trials include dizziness, transient facial tingling, a state of near-sleep, or somnolence, and hypernatremia, an electrolyte disturbance that is defined by an elevated sodium level in the blood, which we believe is secondary, at least in part, to another side effect, aquaresis, that is defined as electrolyte-free urination. As described above, the observation of mild to moderate hypernatremia in our adaptive trial for postoperative pain triggered a stopping rule in the trial protocol and led the FDA to institute an IND clinical hold related to the trial, pending a safety review. Prolonged aquaresis can result in a negative fluid balance if the excreted water is not replaced by oral or intravenous fluids, and although we recommend steps to control fluid balance, we cannot be certain that such instructions will be followed by healthcare providers and/or patients, and failure to follow such instructions may be accompanied by adverse events associated with negative fluid balance, including disability and death. We believe that one such adverse event, which has been observed, postural tachycardia, an elevation of heart rate upon standing up, is a physiological reflex that can be triggered as a result of decreased intravascular volume caused by a negative fluid balance. We have observed transient prolactin elevations, which are brief increases in the concentration of the hormone prolactin in the bloodstream, in response to I.V. difelikefalin, which we have measured as a nonselective opioid biomarker since both kappa and mu opioids elicit this effect. We cannot be certain that such elevations in prolactin will be transient, safe, and well tolerated in all patients. In addition, previously developed kappa opioid agonists, the pharmacological class of drugs that difelikefalin belongs to, have been associated with poorly tolerated psychiatric side effects, such as a feeling of emotional and mental discomfort, or dysphoria, and hallucinations, at high doses, particularly for prior generations of kappa opioid agonists with substantially unrestricted or only partially restricted entry to the CNS. Although we have not observed psychiatric side effects in any difelikefalin clinical trials to date, we cannot be certain that these side effects or others will not be observed in the future, or that the FDA will not require additional trials or impose more severe labeling restrictions due to these side effects or other concerns. The drug-related side effects could affect patient recruitment or the ability of enrolled patients to complete the trial or result in potential product liability claims. Any of these occurrences may harm our business, financial condition and prospects significantly.

Additionally, our products, including KORSUVA injection, are subject to continuing regulatory oversight. Drugs are more widely used by patients once approval has been obtained and therefore side effects and other problems may be observed after approval that were not seen or anticipated, or were not as prevalent or severe, during pre-approval clinical trials or nonclinical studies. The subsequent delivery of previously unknown problems with a product, or public speculation about adverse safety events, could face a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including:

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Any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of KORSUVA injection and the particular product candidate, if approved, and could significantly harm our business, results of operations and prospects.

If we experience continuous delays or difficulties in the enrollment of patients in clinical trials, our receipt of necessary regulatory approvals could be delayed or prevented.

We may not be able to initiate or continue conducting clinical trials for our product candidates if we are unable to locate and enroll a sufficient number of eligible patients to participate in these trials as required by the FDA or similar regulatory authorities outside the United States. Some of our competitors have ongoing clinical trials for product candidates that treat the same indications as our product candidates, and patients who would otherwise be eligible for our clinical trials may instead enroll in clinical trials of our competitors’ product candidates. Patient enrollment is affected by other factors including:

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For example, we experienced a delay in patient enrollment for our Phase 2 clinical trial of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of pruritus in patients with hepatic impairment due to PBC, and could in the future experience delays in either of our ongoing Phase 2 clinical trials as patient enrollment in both of these trials is not yet complete.

Our inability to enroll a sufficient number of patients for our clinical trials would result in significant delays and could require us to abandon one or more clinical trials altogether. We may encounter difficulties and/or delays in completing our planned enrollments. Enrollment delays in our clinical trials may result in increased development costs for our product candidates, or the inability to complete development of our product candidates, which would cause the value of our company to decline, limit our ability to obtain additional financing, and materially impair our ability to generate revenues.

Risks Related to Our Financial Condition and Capital Requirements

We have incurred significant losses from our inception, and although we generated net income in 2020, we anticipate that we may incur losses in the foreseeable future. Our first commercial product was only recently approved, and we may never maintain profitability.

We are an early commercial-stage biopharmaceutical company. For the last several years, we have focused our efforts primarily on developing KORSUVA injection and Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) with the goal of achieving regulatory approval and in August 2021, the FDA approved KORSUVA injection for the treatment of moderate-to-severe CKD-aP in adults undergoing hemodialysis. Since inception, we have incurred significant operating and net losses. We incurred net losses of $88.4 million and $106.4 million for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2019, respectively. As of December 31, 2021, we had an accumulated deficit of $480.8 million. Although we generated net income for the year ended December 31, 2020 as a result of a commercial license transaction, we expect to continue to incur significant expenses and operating and net losses in the foreseeable future, as we continue to prepare for the commercialization of KORSUVA injection and develop and seek marketing approval for our product candidates. Our financial results may fluctuate significantly from year to year, depending on the timing of our clinical trials, the receipt of additional milestone payments, if any, under our agreements with Vifor, VFMCRP, Maruishi and CKDP, the receipt of payments under any future agreements we may enter into, and our expenditures on other R&D activities as well as any payments owed under the License Agreement with Enteris and any future similar agreements.

In addition, we expect to incur significant sales, marketing and manufacturing expenses related to our product candidates, if they are approved by the FDA, and expenses related to the commercialization of KORSUVA injection. As a result, we expect to continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future as we:

To become and remain profitable from product sales, we must succeed in developing and eventually commercializing one or more products that generate significant revenue. For example, revenues from KORSUVA injection may not be sufficient to enable us to reach profitability. In order to commercialize any additional product

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candidates, we will need to be successful in a range of challenging activities, including successful registration of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin), discovering additional product candidates and completing preclinical testing and clinical trials for those product candidates, potentially entering into collaboration and license agreements, obtaining regulatory approval for product candidates and manufacturing, marketing and selling approved products and product candidates for which we may obtain regulatory approval. We may never succeed in these activities and, even if we do, may never achieve profitability.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with pharmaceutical product development, we are unable to accurately predict the timing or amount of increased expenses or when, or if, we will be able to achieve profitability. If we are required by the FDA or foreign regulatory authorities, to perform studies in addition to those currently expected, or if there are any delays in completing our clinical trials or the development of any of our product candidates, our expenses could increase.

Even if we do achieve profitability from product sales, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability on a quarterly or annual basis. Our failure to become and remain profitable would depress the value of our company and could impair our ability to raise capital, expand our business, maintain our R&D efforts, diversify our product offerings or even continue our operations. A decline in the value of our company could also cause you to lose all or part of your investment.

Our operating history makes it difficult to evaluate our business and prospects.

We commenced operations in 2004, and our operations to date have been limited to organizing and staffing our company, business planning, raising capital and advancing our products and product candidates, including KORSUVA injection and Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin), through clinical development. We have not yet demonstrated an ability to successfully commercialize a product. With the approval of KORSUVA injection, we will need to expand our capabilities to support commercial activities of our commercial partners. We may not be successful in adding such capabilities. Consequently, any predictions about our future performance may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a history of successfully developing and commercializing pharmaceutical products.

We may need additional funding and may be unable to raise capital when needed, which would force us to delay, reduce or eliminate our product development programs or commercialization efforts.

Conducting clinical trials, pursuing regulatory approvals, establishing outsourced manufacturing relationships and successfully manufacturing and commercializing our products and product candidates is expensive. We may need to raise additional capital to:

As of December 31, 2021, we believe that with our current unrestricted cash and cash equivalents and available-for-sale marketable securities will be sufficient to fund our currently anticipated operating expenses and capital requirements through 2023, without giving effect to any additional potential milestone payments or potential product revenue we may receive under our licensing and collaboration agreements with Vifor, VFMCRP, Maruisihi and CKDP. We have based this estimate on assumptions that may prove to be wrong and we could spend our available financial resources faster than we currently expect. Further, because we do not have sufficient financial resources to meet all of

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our development objectives, in particular the completion of our development of Oral KORSUVA (difelikefalin) for the treatment of AD-aP, NDD-CKD, CLD-PBC and NP, we will need to raise additional capital. If we are not able to do so, we could be required to postpone, scale back or eliminate some, or all, of these objectives. Our future funding requirements will depend on many factors, including, but not limited to:

Future capital requirements will also depend on the extent to which we acquire or invest in additional complementary businesses, products and technologies. Until we can generate a sufficient amount of product revenue, if ever, we expect to finance future cash needs through public or private equity offerings, debt financings, milestone and royalty payments from corporate collaboration and licensing arrangements, as well as through interest income earned on cash and investment balances. We cannot be certain that additional funding will be available on acceptable terms, or at all, and our ability to raise additional capital may be adversely impacted by potential worsening global economic conditions and the continuing disruptions to and volatility in the credit and financial markets in the United States and worldwide resulting from the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. If adequate funds are not available, we may be required to delay, reduce the scope of, or eliminate, one or more of our development programs or our commercialization efforts.

Risks Related to Our Dependence on Third Parties

We are dependent on third parties to decide to utilize KORSUVA injection and to make it readily available at the point of care throughout their dialysis centers or hospitals.

In addition to extensive internal efforts, the successful commercialization of KORSUVA injection will require many third parties, over whom we have no control, to decide to utilize KORSUVA injection and to make it readily available at the point of care throughout their hospitals. These third parties include physicians, dialysis providers, pharmacists and hospital pharmacy and therapeutics committees, which are commonly referred to as P&T committees. Generally, before we can attempt to sell KORSUVA injection in a hospital or dialysis center, it must be approved for addition to that hospital or dialysis center’s list of approved drugs, or formulary list, by the institution’s P&T committee. An institutional P&T committee typically governs all matters pertaining to the use of medications within the institution, including review of medication formulary data and recommendations for the appropriate use of drugs within the institution to the medical staff. The frequency of P&T committee meetings at various institutions varies considerably, and P&T committees often require additional information to aid in their decision-making process, so we may experience substantial delays in obtaining formulary approvals. Additionally, institutions may be concerned that the cost of acquiring KORSUVA injection for use in their institutions will adversely impact their overall pharmacy budgets, which could cause institution staff to resist efforts to add KORSUVA injection to the formulary, or to implement restrictions on the usage of the drug in order to control costs, either initially or later, when the increasing use of KORSUVA injection

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within their institution begins to significantly impact their budgets. We cannot guarantee that we will be successful in getting the approvals we need from enough P&T committees and overcoming any financial objections raised by institution staff quickly enough to maintain and grow institutional sales of KORSUVA injection.

We rely on third parties to perform many essential services for KORSUVA injection and may do so in the future for any products that we commercialize, including services related to warehousing and inventory control, distribution, customer service, accounts receivable management, cash collection and adverse event reporting. If these third parties fail to perform as expected or to comply with legal and regulatory requirements, our ability to commercialize KORSUVA injection or any other product candidate, will be significantly impacted and we may be subject to regulatory sanctions.

We retain third-party service providers to perform a variety of functions related to the sale and distribution of KORSUVA injection and may do so in the future for our other current or future product candidates, key aspects of which will be out of our direct control. These service providers provide key services related to warehousing and inventory control, distribution, customer service, accounts receivable management and cash collection, and, as a result, most of our inventory are stored at a single warehouse maintained by one such service provider. Thus, we substantially rely on it as well as other third-party providers that perform services for us, including entrusting our inventories of products to their care and handling. If these third-party service providers fail to comply with applicable laws and regulations, fail to meet expected deadlines, or otherwise do not carry out their contractual duties to us, or encounter physical or natural damage at their facilities, our ability to deliver product to meet commercial demand would be significantly impaired. In addition, we have engaged third parties to perform various other services for us relating to adverse event reporting, safety database management, fulfillment of requests for medical information regarding our product candidates and related services. If the quality or accuracy of the data maintained by these service providers is insufficient, or these third parties otherwise fail to comply with regulatory requirements related to adverse event reporting, we could be subject to regulatory sanctions.

We are dependent on our collaboration agreements for certain revenues, and if our commercial partners do not perform their obligations under such agreements, we could lose revenues.

In October 2020, we entered into a license agreement with Vifor under which we granted Vifor an exclusive license solely in the United States to use, distribute, offer for sale, promote, sell and otherwise commercialize our product candidate KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection for all therapeutic uses relating to the inhibition, prevention or treatment of itch associated with pruritus in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis patients in the United States. In May 2018, we entered into an agreement with VFMCRP under which we granted VFMCRP a license to seek regulatory approval to commercialize, import, export, use, distribute, offer for sale, promote, sell and otherwise commercialize KORSUVA (difelikefalin) injection for all therapeutic uses to prevent, inhibit or treat itch associated with pruritus in hemodialysis and peritoneal-dialysis patients worldwide (excluding the United States, Japan and South Korea). In April 2013, we entered into an agreement with Maruishi under which we granted Maruishi an exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize products containing difelikefalin in Japan. Also, in April 2012, we entered into an agreement with CKDP under which we granted CKDP an exclusive license to develop, manufacture and commercialize products containing difelikefalin in South Korea. Under the VFMCRP Agreement, we are responsible, at our own cost, to undertake clinical and non-clinical development. We are also responsible to provide all content and subject matter expertise required for registration with the EMA in the EU that will be needed by VFMCRP for such registration, including participation in regulatory meetings, as needed. VFMCRP will contribute, at its own cost, its clinical development expertise as reasonably useful for such development activities, such as preparing the clinical results that we present to it in a format acceptable to the EMA to obtain marketing approval in the EU. Maruishi and CKDP are required to use commercially reasonable efforts, at their expense, to develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize difelikefalin in Japan and South Korea, respectively. Our receipt of milestone payments and royalties under these agreements is dependent on the continued efforts by Vifor, VFMCRP, Maruishi and CKDP, respectively, and their failure to adequately develop or commercialize the licensed products, or any default or inability to meet their payment obligations under their respective agreements, could harm our revenues and business.

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Any collaboration arrangements that we are a party to, such as our collaboration with Vifor Pharma, or may enter into in the future may not be successful, which could adversely affect our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates.

Our business model is to commercialize our product and product candidates in the United States and generally to seek collaboration arrangements with pharmaceutical or biotechnology companies for the development or commercialization of our product candidates in the rest of the world. We currently have license agreements with Vifor and VFMCRP (KORSUVA injection for CKD-aP in dialysis patients) as well as Maruishi and CKDP (difelikefalin - both I.V. and Oral). In addition to our existing agreements, we may enter into additional collaboration arrangements in the future on a selective basis. Our existing collaborations and future collaboration arrangements may not be successful. The success of our existing and future collaboration arrangements will depend heavily on the efforts and activities of our collaborators.

Collaborators generally have significant discretion in determining the efforts and resources that they will apply to these collaboration arrangements. Disagreements between parties to a collaboration arrangement regarding clinical development and commercialization matters can lead to delays in the development process or commercializing the applicable product candidate and, in some cases, termination of the collaboration arrangement. These disagreements can be difficult to resolve if neither of the parties has final decision-making authority.

Collaborations with pharmaceutical companies and other third parties often are terminated or allowed to expire by the other party. For example, the Vifor, VFMCRP, Maruishi and CKDP Agreements may be terminated by our collaborator for our breach or insolvency, each of Vifor and VFMCRP may terminate its respective agreement (in its entirety or with respect to any countries within the Territory upon written notice to us) upon the earlier of (1) acceptance for filing of an NDA covering Licensed Product filed with the FDA (after completion of the Phase 3 program) or (2) the third anniversary of the Effective Date. Maruishi may terminate its agreement with us at will, and CKDP may terminate its agreement with us in certain circumstances relating to patent invalidity or unenforceability or generic entry by a third party, as further described in the section titled “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations - Collaboration and License Agreements” above. Any such termination or expiration would adversely affect us financially and could harm our business reputation. Our current collaborations and any future collaborations we might enter into may pose a number of risks, including the following:

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Additionally, collaborators may elect not to pursue, or pursue as vigorously, the development or commercialization of our product or product candidates as a result of external factors, such as an acquisition or merger. For example, Vifor recently entered into a merger agreement with CSL Limited, a global specialty pharmaceutical company, pursuant to which CSL Limited would acquire all publicly held Vifor Pharma shares if such transaction is completed. When biopharma companies are acquired, it is not uncommon for the acquiring company to have a different strategic focus and priorities than those of the acquired company, which could lead to different decisions with respect to product commercialization efforts. Accordingly, if the acquisition is consummated, CSL Limited may choose not to prioritize KORSUVA injection to the same extent as Vifor Pharma would as a standalone company. If this were to occur, it is possible that the commercialization of KORSUVA injection could suffer, which would have a material adverse impact on our business and results of operations.

If our current collaborations or any other collaborations we might enter into in the future do not result in the successful development and commercialization of products or if one of our collaborators terminates its agreement with us, we may not receive any future research funding or milestone or royalty payments under the collaboration. If we do not receive the funding we expect under these agreements, our development of our product candidates could be delayed and we may need additional resources to develop our product candidates and our product platform. All of the risks relating to our product development, regulatory approval and commercialization described in this Annual Report on Form 10-K also apply to the activities of our collaborators in their respective jurisdictions.

Additionally, if any current or future collaborator of ours is involved in a business combination, the collaborator might deemphasize or terminate development or commercialization of any product candidate licensed to it by us. If one of our collaborators terminates its agreement with us, we may find it more difficult to attract new collaborators and our reputation in the business and financial communities could be adversely affected.

For KORSUVA injection and any other current or future product candidates, we may in the future determine to collaborate with additional pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies for their development and potential commercialization. We face significant competition in seeking appropriate collaborators. Our ability to reach a definitive agreement for collaboration will depend, among other things, upon our assessment of the collaborator’s resources and

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expertise, the terms and conditions of the proposed collaboration and the proposed collaborator’s evaluation of a number of factors. If we are unable to reach agreements with suitable collaborators on a timely basis, on acceptable terms, or at all, we may have to curtail the development of a product candidate, reduce or delay its development program or one or more of our other development programs, delay its potential commercialization or reduce the scope of any sales or marketing activities, or increase our expenditures and undertake development or commercialization activities at our own expense. If we elect to fund and undertake development or commercialization activities on our own, we may need to obtain additional expertise and additional capital, which may not be available to us on acceptable terms or at all. If we fail to enter into collaborations and do not have sufficient funds or expertise to undertake the necessary development and commercialization activities, we may not be able to further develop our product candidates or bring them to market or continue to develop our product platform or successfully commercialize our products and our business may be materially and adversely affected.

Risks Related to Legal and Compliance Matters

If we fail to comply with federal and state healthcare laws, including fraud and abuse, and transparency laws, we could face substantial penalties and our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects could be adversely affected.

As a pharmaceutical company, even though we do not and will not control referrals of healthcare services or bill directly to Medicare, Medicaid or other third-party payers, certain federal and state healthcare laws and regulations pertaining to fraud and abuse, transparency and patients’ rights may be applicable to our business. The healthcare laws and regulations that may affect our ability, and our partners’ and collaborators’ ability, to operate include, but are not limited to:

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Because of the breadth of these laws and the narrowness of the statutory exceptions and regulatory safe harbors available under these laws, it is possible that some of our business activities could be subject to challenge under one or more of such laws. Pharmaceutical and other healthcare companies continue to be prosecuted under the federal false claims laws for numerous activities, including those related to research, sales, marketing and promotional programs. In addition, recent health care reform legislation has strengthened these laws. For example, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, or the Health Care Reform Law, among other things, amends the intent requirement of the federal Anti-Kickback Statute and certain other criminal healthcare fraud statutes. As a result, a person or entity no longer needs to have actual knowledge of these statutes or specific intent to violate them in order to commit a violation. Moreover, the Health Care Reform Law provides that the government may assert that a claim including items or services resulting from a violation of the federal Anti-Kickback Statute constitutes a false or fraudulent claim for purposes of the federal civil False Claims Act. To the extent that any product we make is sold in a foreign country, we may be subject to similar foreign laws and regulations. If we or our operations are found to be in violation of any of the laws described above or any other governmental regulations that apply to us, we may be subject to significant penalties, including administrative, civil and criminal penalties, damages, fines, disgorgement, exclusion from participation in U.S. federal or state health care programs, contractual damages, reputational harm, imprisonment, diminished profits and future earnings, additional reporting requirements and/or oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws, and the curtailment or restructuring of our operations, any of which could materially adversely affect our ability to operate our business and our financial results. Although an effective compliance program can mitigate the risk of investigation and prosecution for violations of these laws, the risks cannot be entirely eliminated. Any action against us for violation of these laws, even if we successfully defend against it, could cause us to incur significant legal expenses and divert our management’s attention from the operation of our business. Moreover, achieving and sustaining compliance with applicable federal and state transparency and fraud and abuse laws may prove costly. If any of the physicians or other healthcare providers or entities with whom we do business, including our partners or collaborators, is found not to be in compliance with applicable laws, it may be subject to significant criminal, civil or administrative sanctions, including but not limited to, exclusions from participation in government healthcare programs, which could also materially affect our business.

Changes in and failures to comply with applicable U.S. and foreign privacy and data protection laws, regulations and standards may subject us to liabilities and adversely affect our business, operations and financial performance.

We are subject to or affected by numerous federal, state and foreign laws and regulations, as well as regulatory guidance, governing the collection, use, disclosure, retention, and security of personal data, such as information that we collect about participants and healthcare providers in connection with clinical trials in the U.S. and abroad. The global data protection landscape is rapidly evolving, and implementation standards and enforcement practices are likely to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future. This evolution may create uncertainty in our business, affect our or our service providers’ ability to operate in certain jurisdictions or to collect, store, transfer use and share personal data, result in liability or impose additional costs on us. The cost of compliance with these laws, regulations and standards is high and is likely to increase in the future. Any failure or perceived failure by us to comply with federal, state, or foreign laws or self-regulatory standards could result in negative publicity, diversion of management time and effort and proceedings against us by governmental entities or others. In many jurisdictions, enforcement actions and consequences for noncompliance are rising.

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In the U.S., HIPAA, as amended by the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act of 2009, or HITECH, imposes certain requirements relating to the privacy, security and transmission of individually identifiable health information without appropriate authorization by entities subject to the rule, including health plans, healthcare clearinghouses, certain healthcare providers, and their business associates and covered subcontractors that perform services for them that involve the creation, use, maintenance or disclosure of, individually identifiable health information. In the event we are subject to HIPAA and we or our covered subcontractors fail to properly maintain the privacy and security of certain individually identifiable health information, or we or our covered subcontractors are responsible for an inadvertent disclosure or security breach of such individually identifiable health information, we could be subject to enforcement measures, including civil and criminal penalties and fines for violations of state and federal privacy or security standards, such as HIPAA and HITECH, and their respective implementing regulations. Additionally, certain states have adopted comparable privacy and security laws and regulations, some of which may be more stringent than HIPAA. For example, on June 28, 2018, California enacted the California Consumer Privacy Act, or CCPA, which takes effect on January 1, 2020. The CCPA gives California residents expanded rights to access and delete their personal information, opt out of certain personal information sharing, and receive detailed information about how their personal information is used. The CCPA provides for civil penalties for violations, as well as a private right of action for data breaches that is expected to increase data breach litigation. The CCPA may increase our compliance costs and potential liability. Some observers have noted that the CCPA could mark the beginning of a trend toward more stringent privacy legislation in the U.S., such as similar privacy legislation in Virginia and in Colorado, which could increase our potential liability and adversely affect our business.

Our operations abroad may also be subject to increased scrutiny or attention from data protection authorities. Many countries in these regions have established or are in the process of establishing privacy and data security legal frameworks with which we or our partners, collaborators, customers, or service providers must comply. For example, the EU has adopted the General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR, which went into effect in May 2018 and introduced strict requirements for processing personal data. The GDPR is likely to increase compliance burden on us, including by mandating potentially burdensome documentation requirements and granting certain rights to individuals to control how we collect, use, disclose, retain and leverage information about them or how we obtain consent from them. The processing of sensitive personal data, such as physical health condition, may impose heightened compliance burdens under the GDPR and is a topic of active interest among foreign regulators and supervisory bodies involved in the review and approval of clinical trials. In addition, the GDPR provides for breach reporting requirements, more robust regulatory enforcement and fines of up to 20 million euros or up to 4% of the annual global revenue. As we continue to expand into other foreign countries and jurisdictions, we may be subject to additional laws and regulations that may affect how we conduct business.

U.S. and foreign data protection laws, regulations and standards are subject to interpretation by various courts and other governmental authorities, thus creating potentially complex compliance issues for us and our future customers and strategic partners. Any liability from failure to comply with the requirements of these laws, to the extent such requirements are deemed to apply to our operations, could adversely affect our financial condition. The costs of complying with privacy and security related legal and regulatory requirements are burdensome and could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations.

If the government or other third-party payers fail to provide coverage and adequate reimbursement and payment rates for KORSUVA injection or any of our other current or future product candidates, if any, or if providers choose to use therapies that are less expensive, our revenue and prospects for profitability will be limited.

In both domestic and foreign markets, sales of KORSUVA injection and our future products (if approved) will depend in part upon the availability of coverage and reimbursement from third-party payers. Such third-party payers include government health programs such as Medicare and Medicaid, managed care providers, private health insurers and other organizations. Coverage decisions may depend upon clinical and economic standards that disfavor new drug products when more established or lower cost therapeutic alternatives are already available or subsequently become available. Assuming coverage is approved, the resulting reimbursement payment rates might not be adequate. KORSUVA injection for the treatment of pruritus in hemodialysis patients is expected to be designated as a component of the government’s bundled reimbursement for end stage renal disease treatment.

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Our U.S. commercial partner, Vifor Pharma Group, submitted the payment reimbursement application for TDAPA and HCPCS to CMS in September 2021. In December 2021, CMS granted TDAPA to KORSUVA injection in the anti-pruritic functional category. TDAPA will apply to KORSUVA injection beginning April 1, 2022 for two years.

Additionally, many U.S. hospitals receive a fixed reimbursement amount per procedure for certain surgeries and other treatment therapies they perform, or a pre-determined rate for all hospital inpatient care provided as payment in full. Because, in these instances, the amount of reimbursement that such providers receive may not be based on the actual expenses the provider incurs, providers may choose to use therapies which are less expensive when compared to our product candidates. Accordingly, KORSUVA injection or any of our other current or future product candidates, if approved, will face competition from other therapies and drugs for these limited provider financial resources. We may need to conduct post-marketing studies in order to demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of any future products to the satisfaction of hospitals, other target customers and their third-party payers. Such studies might require us to commit a significant amount of management time and financial and other resources. Our future products might not ultimately be considered cost-effective. Third-party coverage and adequate reimbursement might not be available to enable us to maintain price levels sufficient to realize an appropriate return on investment in product development.

Third-party payers, whether foreign or domestic, or governmental or commercial, are developing increasingly sophisticated methods of controlling healthcare costs. In addition, in the United States, no uniform policy of coverage and reimbursement for drug products exists among third-party payers. Therefore, coverage and reimbursement for drug products can differ significantly from payer to payer. Further, we believe that future coverage and reimbursement will likely be subject to increased restrictions both in the United States and in international markets. Third-party coverage and reimbursement for our products or product candidates for which we receive regulatory approval may not be available or adequate in either the United States or international markets, which could have a negative effect on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

We are subject to recent legislation, regulatory proposals and healthcare payer initiatives that may increase our costs of compliance and adversely affect our ability to market our products, obtain collaborators and raise capital.

In March 2010, President Obama signed the Health Care Reform Law, which includes provisions that have changed, and likely will continue to change, health care financing and the delivery of health care in the United States. Among the provisions of the Health Care Reform Law of importance to the pharmaceutical industry are the following:

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There have been executive, judicial and Congressional challenges to certain aspects of the Health Care Reform Law. For example, on June 17, 2021 the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed a challenge on procedural grounds that argued the Health Care Reform Law is unconstitutional in its entirety because the “individual mandate” was repealed by Congress. Thus, the Health Care Reform Law will remain in effect in its current form. Further, prior to the Supreme Court ruling, on January 28, 2021, President Biden issued an executive order to initiate a special enrollment period for purposes of obtaining health insurance coverage through the Health Care Reform Law marketplace, which began on February 15, 2021 and remained open through August 15, 2021. The executive order also instructed certain governmental agencies to review and reconsider their existing policies and rules that limit access to healthcare, including among others, reexamining Medicaid demonstration projects and waiver programs that include work requirements, and policies that create unnecessary barriers to obtaining access to health insurance coverage through Medicaid or the Health Care Reform Law. It is also unclear how any such challenges and the healthcare reform measures of the Biden administration will impact the Health Care Reform Law and our business.

In addition, other legislative changes have been proposed and adopted since the Health Care Reform Law was enacted. These changes include, among other things, aggregate reductions to Medicare payments to providers of up to 2% per fiscal year, which went effective on April 1, 2013 and, following passage of the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015, and subsequent legislative amendments, will remain in effect until 2031, except for a temporary suspension from May 1, 2020 through March 31, 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, unless additional Congressional action is taken. Under current legislation, the actual reduction in Medicare payments will vary from 1% in 2022 to up to 3% in the final fiscal year of this sequester. In January 2013, President Obama signed into law the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012, which, among other things, further reduced Medicare payments to several providers and increased the statute of limitations period for the government to recover overpayments to providers from three to five years. Additionally, on March 11, 2021, President Biden signed the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 into law, which eliminates the statutory Medicaid drug rebate cap, currently set at 100% of a drug’s average manufacturer price, for single source and innovator multiple source drugs, beginning January 1, 2024. Congress is considering additional health reform measures. These new laws may result in additional reductions in Medicare and other healthcare funding, which could have a material adverse effect on customers for our drugs, if approved, and, accordingly, our financial operations. Further, Congress is considering additional health reform measures.

We expect that the Health Care Reform Law, as well as other federal and state healthcare reform measures that may be adopted in the future, may result in more rigorous coverage criteria and in additional downward pressure on the price that we receive for KORSUVA injection or any approved product candidate. Any reduction in reimbursement from Medicare or other government healthcare programs may result in a similar reduction in payments from private payers. In addition, there have been several recent U.S. Presidential executive orders, Congressional inquiries and proposed and

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enacted federal and state legislation designed to, among other things, bring more transparency to drug pricing, review the relationship between pricing and manufacturer patient programs, reduce the cost of drugs under Medicare, and reform government program reimbursement methodologies for drugs. At the federal level, the Trump administration used several means to propose or implement drug pricing reform, including through federal budget proposals, executive orders and policy initiatives. For example, on July 24, 2020 and September 13, 2020, the Trump administration announced several executive orders related to prescription drug pricing that seek to implement several of the administration’s proposals. As a result, the FDA concurrently released a final rule in September 2020, effective November 30, 2020, providing pathways for states to build and submit importation plans for drugs from Canada. Further, on November 20, 2020, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS, finalized a regulation removing safe harbor protection for price reductions from pharmaceutical manufacturers to plan sponsors under Part D, either directly or through pharmacy benefit managers, unless the price reduction is required by law. The implementation of the rule has been delayed by the Biden administration from January 1, 2022 to January 1, 2023 in response to ongoing litigation. The rule also creates a new safe harbor for price reductions reflected at the point-of-sale, as well as a safe harbor for certain fixed fee arrangements between pharmacy benefit managers and manufacturers, the implementation of which have also been delayed until January 1, 2023. On November 20, 2020, CMS issued an interim final rule implementing President Trump’s Most Favored Nation executive order, which would tie Medicare Part B payments for certain physician-administered drugs to the lowest price paid in other economically advanced countries. As a result of litigation challenging the Most Favored Nation model, on December 27, 2021, CMS published a final rule that rescinds the Most Favored Nation model interim final rule. Additionally, on March 11, 2021, President Biden signed the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 into law, which eliminates the statutory Medicaid drug rebate cap, currently set at 100% of a drug’s average manufacturer price, for single source and innovator multiple source drugs, beginning January 1, 2024. Further, in July 2021, the Biden administration released an executive order that included multiple provisions aimed at prescription drugs. In response to Biden’s executive order, on September 9, 2021, HHS released a Comprehensive Plan for Addressing High Drug Prices that outlines principles for drug pricing reform. The plan sets out a variety of potential legislative policies that Congress could pursue as well as potential administrative actions HHS can take to advance these principles. No legislation or administrative actions have been finalized to implement these principles. At the state level, legislatures have increasingly passed legislation and implemented regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and, in some cases, to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. The implementation of cost containment measures or other healthcare reforms may prevent us from being able to generate revenue, attain profitability or commercialize our drugs.

Legislative and regulatory proposals have been made to expand post-approval requirements and restrict sales and promotional activities for drugs. We cannot be sure whether additional legislative changes will be enacted, or whether the FDA regulations, guidance or interpretations will be changed, or what the impact of such changes on the marketing approvals of our product candidates, if any, may be. In addition, increased scrutiny by the U.S. Congress of the FDA’s approval process may significantly delay or prevent marketing approval, as well as subject us to more stringent product labeling and post-marketing testing and other requirements. Moreover, the Drug Supply Chain Security Act imposes obligations on manufacturers of pharmaceutical products, among others, related to product tracking and tracing.

Legislation and regulations that, among other things, reduce drug prices or require the implementation of costly compliance measures could result in decreased net revenues from our pharmaceutical products and decrease potential returns from our development efforts, and we cannot predict what legislation will be enacted in the future. Further, it is possible that additional governmental action is taken in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Governments outside the United States tend to impose strict price controls, which may adversely affect our revenues, if any.

In international markets, reimbursement and health care payment systems vary significantly by country, and many countries have instituted price ceilings on specific products and therapies. In some countries, particularly the countries of the EU, the pricing of prescription pharmaceuticals is subject to governmental control. In these countries, pricing negotiations with governmental authorities can take considerable time after the receipt of marketing approval for a product. To obtain coverage and reimbursement or pricing approval in some countries, we may be required to conduct a

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clinical trial that compares the cost-effectiveness of our product candidate to other available therapies. There can be no assurance that our products will be considered cost-effective by third-party payers, that an adequate level of reimbursement will be available or that the third-party payers’ reimbursement policies will not adversely affect our ability to sell our products profitably. If reimbursement of our products is unavailable or limited in scope or amount, or if pricing is set at unsatisfactory levels, our business could be harmed, possibly materially.

Our employees, independent contractors, consultants, and commercial partners may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

We are exposed to the risk of fraud or other misconduct by our employees, independent contractors, consultants and commercial partners. Misconduct by such individuals could include intentional failures to:

In particular, the promotion, sales and marketing of healthcare items and services, as well as certain business arrangements in the healthcare industry, are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, misconduct, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, including off label uses of our products, structuring and commission(s), certain customer incentive programs, patient assistance programs, and other business arrangements generally. Third party misconduct could also involve the improper use or misrepresentation of information obtained in the course of clinical trials, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. It is not always possible to identify and deter such misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business and financial results, including the imposition of civil, criminal and administrative penalties, damages, disgorgement, monetary fines, possible exclusion from participation in Medicare, Medicaid and other federal healthcare programs, individual imprisonment, contractual damages, reputational harm, diminished profits and future earnings, additional reporting requirements and/or oversight if we become subject to a corporate integrity agreement or similar agreement to resolve allegations of non-compliance with these laws, and curtailment or restructuring of our operations, any of which could adversely affect our ability to operate our business and our results of operations.

Our business involves the use of hazardous materials and we must comply with environmental laws and regulations, which can be expensive and restrict how we do business.

Our manufacturing activities involve the controlled storage, use and disposal of hazardous materials, including the components of our products, product candidates and other hazardous compounds. We are subject to federal, state and local laws and regulations governing the use, manufacture, storage, handling, release and disposal of, and exposure to, these hazardous materials. Violation of these laws and regulations could lead to substantial fines and penalties. Although we believe that our safety procedures for handling and disposing of these materials comply with the standards prescribed

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by these laws and regulations, we cannot eliminate the risk of accidental contamination or injury from these materials. In the event of an accident, state or federal authorities may curtail our use of these materials and interrupt our business operations. In addition, we could become subject to potentially material liabilities relating to the investigation and cleanup of any contamination, whether currently unknown or caused by future releases.

Although we maintain workers’ compensation insurance to cover us for costs and expenses we may incur due to injuries to our employees resulting from the use of hazardous materials, this insurance may not provide adequate coverage against potential liabilities. We do not maintain insurance for environmental liability or toxic tort claims that may be asserted against us in connection with our storage or disposal of biological, hazardous or radioactive materials.

In addition, we may incur substantial costs in order to comply with current or future environmental, health and safety laws and regulations. These current or future laws and regulations may impair our research, development or production efforts. Our failure to comply with these laws and regulations also may result in substantial fines, penalties or other sanctions.

Risks Related to Intellectual Property

It is difficult and costly to protect our proprietary rights and as a result we may not be able to ensure their protection and all patents will eventually expire.

Our commercial success will depend in part on obtaining and maintaining patent protection and trade secret protection for difelikefalin for our KORSUVA injection or other product candidates and for any other product candidates that we may develop, license or acquire and the methods we use to manufacture them, as well as successfully defending these patents and trade secrets against third-party challenges. We will only be able to protect our technologies from unauthorized use by third parties to the extent that valid and enforceable patents or trade secrets cover them.

The patent prosecution process is expensive and time-consuming, and we may not be able to file and prosecute to issuance all necessary or desirable patent applications at a reasonable cost or in a timely manner. It is also possible that we will fail to identify patentable aspects of our R&D output before it is too late to obtain patent protection. Moreover, should we enter into additional collaborations we may be required to consult with or cede control to collaborators regarding the prosecution, maintenance and enforcement of our patents. Therefore, these patents and applications may not be successfully prosecuted to issuance and enforced in a manner consistent with the best interests of our business. The patent positions of pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies can be highly uncertain and involve complex legal and factual questions for which important legal principles remain unresolved. No consistent policy regarding the breadth of claims allowed in pharmaceutical or biotechnology patents has emerged to date in the United States. The patent situation outside the United States is even more uncertain. Changes in either the patent laws or in interpretations of patent laws in the United States and other countries may diminish the value of our intellectual property. Accordingly, we cannot predict the breadth of claims that may be allowed or enforced in our patents or in third-party patents. The degree of future protection for our proprietary rights is uncertain, because legal means afford only limited protection and may not adequately protect our rights or permit us to gain or keep our competitive advantage. Moreover, the patent application process is also subject to numerous risks and uncertainties, and there can be no assurance that we or any of our future development partners will be successful in protecting difelikefalin and any other product candidates that we may develop, license or acquire by obtaining and defending patents. For example:

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Recent patent reform legislation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents. On September 16, 2011, the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act, or the Leahy-Smith Act, was signed into law. The Leahy-Smith Act includes a number of significant changes to United States patent law. These include provisions that affect the way patent applications are prosecuted and may also affect patent litigation. The United States Patent Office has developed new regulations and procedures to govern administration of the Leahy-Smith Act, and many of the substantive changes to patent law associated with the Leahy-Smith Act, including and in particular, the first to file provisions, became effective on March 16, 2013. The Leahy-Smith Act and its implementation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our currently pending and future patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents, all of which could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition.

Patent applications in the United States are generally maintained in confidence for at least 18 months after their earliest effective filing date and in certain circumstances not until granted when no foreign counterpart patent applications are filed. Furthermore, published patent applications may issue at a later date with new and/or amended claims substantially different from those published earlier. Consequently, we cannot be certain we were the first to invent or the first to file patent applications on difelikefalin or any other product candidates that we may develop, license or acquire.

Until recent changes to the U.S. Patent Laws, patents and patent applications relating to substantially similar claimed inventions were potentially subject to interference proceedings to determine the first applicant to invent the claimed subject matter. For an interference to be declared against our patents and patent applications, any such interference would be under the 1952 law which was eliminated by the America Invents Act, or AIA, enacted in 2011 and fully effective in 2013. Such an interference would therefore have to relate to a patent or application with an effective filing date before March 16, 2013. No interference with such a patent or application has been declared to date. Therefore, it seems extremely unlikely that we may have to participate in interference proceedings declared by the USPTO to determine priority of invention in the United States against one or more parties claiming the same or similar invention. However, in the unlikely event that such interference was to be declared, the costs of these proceedings could be substantial and it is possible that our efforts would be unsuccessful, resulting in a material adverse effect on our U.S. patent position. The results of these types of proceedings could reduce the scope of, or invalidate, our patent rights, allow third parties to commercialize our technology or products and compete directly with us, without payment to us, or result in our inability to manufacture or commercialize products without infringing third-party patent rights. In addition, if the breadth or strength of protection provided by our patents and patent applications is threatened, it could dissuade

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companies from collaborating with us to license, develop or commercialize current or future product candidates. Such results could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations.

In addition, the patentability of claims in pending patent applications covering KORSUVA injection or other difelikefalin-based product can be challenged by third parties during prosecution in the USPTO under the new AIA law of 2013, for example by third party observations and derivation proceedings, and the validity of claims in issued patents can be challenged by third parties in various post-grant proceedings such as Post-Grant Review, Inter-partes Reexamination, and Inter-partes Review proceedings.

Furthermore, we may not have identified all United States and foreign patents or published applications that affect our business either by blocking our ability to commercialize our drugs or by covering similar technologies that affect our drug market. In addition, some countries, including many in Europe, do not grant patent claims directed to methods of treating humans, and in these countries patent protection may not be available at all to protect our product candidates. Even if patents issue, we cannot guarantee that the claims of those patents will be valid and enforceable or provide us with any significant protection against competitive products, or otherwise be commercially valuable to us.

We also rely on trade secrets to protect our technology, particularly where we do not believe patent protection is appropriate or obtainable. However, trade secrets are difficult to protect. While we use reasonable efforts to protect our trade secrets, our licensors, employees, consultants, contractors, outside scientific collaborators and other advisors may unintentionally or willfully disclose our information to competitors. Enforcing a claim that a third party illegally obtained and is using our trade secrets is expensive and time consuming, and the outcome is unpredictable. In addition, courts outside the United States are sometimes less willing to protect trade secrets. Moreover, our competitors may independently develop equivalent knowledge, methods and know-how.

If we fail to obtain or maintain patent protection or trade secret protection for difelikefalin or any other product candidate that we may develop, license or acquire, third parties could use our proprietary information, which could impair our ability to compete in the market and adversely affect our ability to generate revenues and achieve profitability.

Even if our patent applications issue as patents, they may not issue in a form that will provide us with any meaningful protection, prevent competitors from competing with us or otherwise provide us with any competitive advantage. Our competitors may be able to circumvent our owned or licensed patents by developing similar or alternative technologies or products in a non-infringing manner.

The issuance of a patent is not conclusive as to its inventorship, scope, validity or enforceability, and our owned and licensed patents may be challenged in the courts or patent offices in the United States and abroad. Such challenges may result in loss of exclusivity or freedom to operate or in patent claims being narrowed, invalidated or held unenforceable, in whole or in part, which could limit our ability to stop others from using or commercializing similar or identical technology and products, or limit the duration of the patent protection of our technology and products. Given the amount of time required for the development, testing and regulatory review of new product candidates, patents protecting such product candidates might expire before or shortly after such product candidates are commercialized. As a result, our owned and licensed patent portfolio may not provide us with sufficient rights to exclude others from commercializing products similar or identical to ours.

If we or any current or future collaboration partner are sued for infringing intellectual property rights of third parties, it will be costly and time consuming, and an unfavorable outcome in any litigation would harm our business.

Our ability to develop, manufacture, market and sell KORSUVA injection or any of our other current of future product candidates depends upon our ability to avoid infringing the proprietary rights of third parties, and our commercial success depends upon our ability, and the ability of our collaborators, to develop, manufacture, market and sell our product candidates and use our proprietary technologies without infringing the proprietary rights of third parties. There is considerable intellectual property litigation in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. Numerous U.S. and foreign issued patents and pending patent applications, which are owned by third parties, exist in the general field of pain management and cover the use of numerous compounds and formulations in our targeted markets. Third parties

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may assert infringement claims against us based on existing patents or patents that may be granted in the future. Because of the uncertainty inherent in any patent or other litigation involving proprietary rights, we and our licensors may not be successful in defending intellectual property claims by third parties, which could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations. Regardless of the outcome of any litigation, defending the litigation may be expensive, time-consuming and distracting to management. In addition, because patent applications can take many years to issue, there may be currently pending applications, unknown to us, which may later result in issued patents that KORSUVA injection or our other current or future product candidates may infringe. There could also be existing patents of which we are not aware that KORSUVA injection or our other current or future product candidates may inadvertently infringe.

There is a substantial amount of litigation involving patent and other intellectual property rights in the biotechnology and biopharmaceutical industries generally. If a third-party claims that we infringe on their products or technology, we could face a number of issues, including:

If we are found to infringe a third party’s intellectual property rights, we could be required to obtain a license from such third party to continue developing and marketing our products and technology. However, we may not be able to obtain any required license on commercially reasonable terms or at all. Even if we were able to obtain a license, it could be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us. We could be forced, including by court order, to cease commercializing the infringing technology or product. In addition, we could be found liable for monetary damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees if we are found to have willfully infringed a patent. A finding of infringement could prevent us from commercializing our product candidates or force us to cease some of our business operations, which could materially harm our business. Claims that we have misappropriated the confidential information or trade secrets of third parties could have a similar negative impact on our business.

We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our patents or the patents of our licensors, which could be expensive, time consuming and may ultimately be unsuccessful.

Competitors may infringe our issued patents or other intellectual property. To counter infringement or unauthorized use, we may be required to file infringement claims, which can be expensive and time consuming. Any claims we assert against perceived infringers could provoke these parties to assert counterclaims against us alleging that we infringe their patents. In addition, in a patent infringement proceeding, a court may decide that a patent of ours is invalid or unenforceable, in whole or in part, construe the patent’s claims narrowly or refuse to stop the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question. An adverse result in any litigation proceeding could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly. Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation.

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